Sterols and fecal indicator microorganisms in sediments from Admiralty Bay, Antarctica

Martins, César de Castro; Montone, Rosalinda Carmela; Gamba, Rosa Carvalho; Pellizari, Vivian Helena

Abstracts

Sediments from the proximity of Ferraz station outfall, located in Admiralty Bay, Antarctica, were analyzed for fecal indicator microorganisms and sterols during the austral summer of 1999/2000 in order to assess human sewage input. Concentrations of total sterols and coprostanol ranged from 0.09 to 19.6 ¼g.g-1 and < 0.01 and 14.0 ¼g.g-1 dry weight (dw), respectively. Our analyses indicated that only sites within to 400m of the sewage outfall exhibited a sterol signal characteristic of human sewage input. Low levels of coprostanol and high levels of cholesterol in distant sites could be attributed to natural sources such as marine mammals and planktonic organisms. Fecal indicator microorganisms (E. coli, fecal streptococci and Clostridium perfringens) were non-detectable beyond 50m from outfall. Both indicators (sterols and fecal indicator microorganisms) produced consistent data and fecal sterol parameters have sho wn themselves to be efficient in the evaluation of trace amounts of fecal material. This study concluded that sewage contamination is limited to the immediate vicinity of the sewage outfall. In general, the concentration of fecal sterols and microbiological indicators were lower than in other Antarctic areas.

Fecal sterols; Coprostanol; Microbial indicators; Clostridium; sediments; Antarctica

Amostras de sedimento, coletadas nas proximidades da saída de esgoto da Estação Antártica Comandante Ferraz (Brasil), Antártica, foram medidos durante o verão de 1999/2000. As concentrações de esteróis totais e coprostanol variaram entre 0,09 e 19,6 ¼g.g-1 e < 0,01 e 14,0 ¼g.g-1 de sedimento seco. Nossas análises mostraram que apenas os pontos localizados até 400 m desde a saída de esgotos apresentaram contribuições provenientes do esgoto da estação brasileira. Baixos níveis de coprostanol e alta concentração de colesterol em pontos distantes puderam ser atribuídos a fontes naturais, como os mamíferos marinhos e organismos planctônicos. Indicadores microbiológicos (E. coli, streptococci fecais e Clostridium perfringens) não foram detectados até 50 m desde a saída de esgotos. Ambos indicadores de poluição fecal produziram dados consistentes, embora os esteróis fecais tenham sido mais apropriados para avaliar quantidades traço de material fecal. Este estudo concluiu que a contaminação por esgotos está limitada apenas aos pontos mais próximos da saída de esgoto. Em geral, as concentrações de esteróis fecais e indicadores microbiológicos foram menores do que em outras regiões antárticas e centros urbanos.

Esteróis fecais; Coprostanol; Indicadores microbiológicos; Clostridium; sedimentos; Antártica

Andersen, H. V.; KjΦlholt, J.; Poll, C.; Dahl, Sf.; Stuer-Lauridsen, F.; Pedersen, F. & BjΦrnestad, E. 1998. Environmental risk assessment of surface water and sediments in Copenhagen harbour. Water Sci. Technol., 37:263-272.
American Public Health Association - APHA. 1995. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. 19^th ed., Washington, APHA. 1666p.
Bruni, V.; Maugeri, T. L. & Monticelli, L. 1997. Fecal pollution indicators in Terra Nova Bay (Ross Sea, Antarctica). Mar. Pollut. Bull., 34:908-912.
Davies, C. M.; Long, J. A. H.; Donald, M. & Ashbolt, N. J. 1995. Survival of fecal microorganisms in marine and freshwater sediments. Appl. environ. Microbiol., 61:1888-1896.
Delille, D. & Delille, E. 2000. Distribution of enteric bacteria in Antarctic Seawater surrounding the Dumont d'Urville permanent Station (Adelie Land). Mar. Pollut. Bull., 40:869-872.
Edwards, D. D.; McFeters, G. A. & Venkatesan, M. I. 1998. Distribution of Clostridium perfringens and fecal sterols in a benthic coastal Marine environment influenced by sewage outfall from McMurdo Station, Antarctica. Appl. Environ. Microb., 64:2596-2600.
Freame, B. & Fitzpatrick, B. W. F. 1972. The use of Differential Reinforced Clostridial Medium for the isolation and enumeration of clostridia. - In "Isolation of anaerobes" edited by Shapton, D. A. & Board, R. G., Academic Press, London, New York. 48-55.
Figueira, R. C. L.; Martins, C. C.; Montone, R. C.; Figueiredo, A. M. G.; Tessler, M. G. & Mahiques, M. M. ²¹⁰Pb, ²²⁶Ra and ¹³⁷Cs levels and sedimentation rate in Admiralty Bay, Antarctic Peninsula (unpublished data).
Green, G.; Skerratt, J. H.; Leeming, R. & Nichols, P. D. 1992. Hydrocarbon and coprostanol levels in seawater, sea-ice algae and sediments near Davis Station in Eastern Antarctica: a regional survey and preliminary results for a field fuel spill experiment. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 25:293-302.
Green, G. & Nichols, P. D. 1995. Hydrocarbons and sterols in marine sediments and soils at Davis Station, Antarctica: a survey for human-derived contaminants. Antarct. Sci. 7:137-144.
Grimalt, J. O.; Fernandez, P.; Bayona, J. M.; & Albaiges, J. 1990. Assessment of fecal sterols and ketones as indicators of urban sewage inputs to coastal waters. Envir. Sci. & Tech., 24:357-363.
Hill, R. T.; Straube, W. L.; Palmisano, A. C.; Gibson, S. L. & Colwell, R. R. 1996. Distribution of sewage indicated by Clostridium perfringens at a deep-water disposal site after cessation of sewage disposal. Appl. Environ. Microb., 62:1741-1746.
Howington, J. P.; McFeters, G. A.; Barry, J. P. & Smith, J. J. 1992. Distribution of the McMurdo station sewage plume. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 25:324-327.
Hughes, K. A. 2003. Influence of seasonal environmental variables on the distribution of presumptive fecal coliforms around an Antarctic research station. Appl. Environ. Microb., 69:4884-4891.
Hughes, K. A. & Thompson, A. 2004. Distribution of sewage pollution around a maritime Antarctic research station indicated by fecal coliforms, Clostridium perfringens and fecal sterol markers. Environm. Pollut., 127:315-321.
Jeng, W. L. & Han, B. C. 1994. Sedimentary coprostanol in Kaohsiung Harbor and Tan-Shui Estuary, Taiwan. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 28:494-499.
Kawakami, S. K. & Montone, R. C. 2002. An efficient ethanol-based analytical protocol to quantify fecal steroids in marine sediments. J. Brazil. Chem. Soc.,13:226-232.
Karentz, E.; Bothwell, M. L.; Coffin, R. B.; Hanson, A.; Herndl, G. J.; Lesser, M. P.; Moeller, R. E.; Morris, D. P.; Neale, P. J.; Sabders, R. W.; Weiler, C. S.; Wetzel, R. G. 1994. Impact of UV-radiation on pelagic freshwater ecosystems: report of working group on bacteria and phytoplankton. Arch. Hydrobiol. Beih., 43:31-69.
Leeming, R. & Nichols, P. D. 1996. Concentrations of coprostanol that correspond to existing bacterial indicator guideline limits. Water Res., 30:2997-3006.
Lessard, E. J. & Sieburth, J. M. 1983. Survival of natural sewage populations of enteric bacteria in diffusion and batch chambers in the marine environment. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 45:950-959
Lipp, E. K.; Farrah, A. S. & Rose, J. B. 2001. Assessment and impact of microbial fecal pollution and human enteric pathogens in coastal community. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 42:286-293.
Maldonado, C.; Venkatesan, M. I.; Phillips, C. R. & Bayona, J. M. 2000. Distribution of trialkylamines and coprostanol in San Pedro shelf sediments adjacent to a sewage outfall. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 40:680-687.
Martins, C. C.; Venkatesan, M. I. & Montone, R. C. 2002. Sterols and Linear alkylbenzenes (LABs) in marine sediments from Admiralty Bay, Antarctica: a regional survey and preliminary results from 97-98 austral summer sampling. Antarct. Sci., 14:244-252.
McFeters, G. A.; Barry, J. P. & Howington, J. P. 1993. Distribution of enteric bacteria in Antarctic seawater surrounding a sewage outfall. Water Res., 27:645-650.
Mudge, S. M. & Bebianno, M. J. 1997. Sewage contamination following an accidental spillage in the Ria Formosa, Portugal. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 34:163-170.
Muela, A.; Garcia-Bringas, J. M.; Arana, I. & Barcina, I. 2000. The effect of simulated solar radiation on Escherichia coli: The relative roles of UV-B; UV-A and photosynthetically Active Radiation. Microb. Ecol., 39:65-71.
Muller, G.; Kanazawa, A. & Teshima, S. 1979. Sedimentary record of fecal pollution in part of Lake Constance by coprostanol determination. Naturwissenschaften. 66: 520-522.
Nguyen, D.; Bruchet, A. & Arpino, P. 1995. Determination of sterols in sewage sludge by combined in situ trimethylsilylation/supercritical fluid extraction and CG/MS. Environ. Sci. Technol., 29:1686-1690.
Nichols, P. D. & Leeming, R. 1991. Tracing sewage in the marine environment. Chem. Austr., 58(7):274-276.
Noble, R. T.; Lee, I. M. & Schiff, K. C. 2004. Inactivation of indicator micro-organisms from various sources of fecal contamination in seawater and freshwater. J. Appl. Microb., 96:464-472.
Sherwin, M. R.; Van Vleet, E. S.; Fossato, V. U. & Dolch, F. 1993. Coprostanol (5b-cholestan-3b-ol) in lagoonal sediments and mussels of Venice, Italy. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 26:501-507.
Skanavis, C. & Yanko, W. A. 2001. Clostridium perfringens as a potential indicator for the presence of sewage solids in marine sediments. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 42:31-35.
Sorensen, D. L.; Eberl, S. G. & Dickson, R. A. 1989. Clostridium perfringens as a point source indicator in non-point polluted streams. Water Res., 23:191-197.
Venkatesan, M. I. & Santiago, C. A. 1989. Sterols in oceans sediments: novel tracers to examine habitats of cetaceans, pinnipeds, penguins and humans. Mar. Biol. 102:431-437.
Venkatesan, M. I. & Kaplan, I. R. 1990. Sedimentary coprostanol as an index of sewage addition in Santa Monica basin, southern California. Environ. Sci. Technol., 24:208-214.
Venkatesan, M. I. & Mirsadeghi, F. H. 1992. Coprostanol as sewage tracer in McMurdo Sound, Antarctica. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 25:328-333.

Publication Dates

Publication in this collection
20 Jan 2009
Date of issue
June 2005

History

Accepted
18 Feb 2005
Reviewed
10 Nov 2004
Received
23 June 2004

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

[1] Andersen, H. V.; KjΦlholt, J.; Poll, C.; Dahl, Sf.; Stuer-Lauridsen, F.; Pedersen, F. & BjΦrnestad, E. 1998. Environmental risk assessment of surface water and sediments in Copenhagen harbour. Water Sci. Technol., 37:263-272.

[2] American Public Health Association - APHA. 1995. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. 19^th ed., Washington, APHA. 1666p.

[3] Bruni, V.; Maugeri, T. L. & Monticelli, L. 1997. Fecal pollution indicators in Terra Nova Bay (Ross Sea, Antarctica). Mar. Pollut. Bull., 34:908-912.

[4] Davies, C. M.; Long, J. A. H.; Donald, M. & Ashbolt, N. J. 1995. Survival of fecal microorganisms in marine and freshwater sediments. Appl. environ. Microbiol., 61:1888-1896.

[5] Delille, D. & Delille, E. 2000. Distribution of enteric bacteria in Antarctic Seawater surrounding the Dumont d'Urville permanent Station (Adelie Land). Mar. Pollut. Bull., 40:869-872.

[6] Edwards, D. D.; McFeters, G. A. & Venkatesan, M. I. 1998. Distribution of Clostridium perfringens and fecal sterols in a benthic coastal Marine environment influenced by sewage outfall from McMurdo Station, Antarctica. Appl. Environ. Microb., 64:2596-2600.

[7] Freame, B. & Fitzpatrick, B. W. F. 1972. The use of Differential Reinforced Clostridial Medium for the isolation and enumeration of clostridia. - In "Isolation of anaerobes" edited by Shapton, D. A. & Board, R. G., Academic Press, London, New York. 48-55.

[8] Figueira, R. C. L.; Martins, C. C.; Montone, R. C.; Figueiredo, A. M. G.; Tessler, M. G. & Mahiques, M. M. ²¹⁰Pb, ²²⁶Ra and ¹³⁷Cs levels and sedimentation rate in Admiralty Bay, Antarctic Peninsula (unpublished data).

[9] Green, G.; Skerratt, J. H.; Leeming, R. & Nichols, P. D. 1992. Hydrocarbon and coprostanol levels in seawater, sea-ice algae and sediments near Davis Station in Eastern Antarctica: a regional survey and preliminary results for a field fuel spill experiment. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 25:293-302.

[10] Green, G. & Nichols, P. D. 1995. Hydrocarbons and sterols in marine sediments and soils at Davis Station, Antarctica: a survey for human-derived contaminants. Antarct. Sci. 7:137-144.

[11] Grimalt, J. O.; Fernandez, P.; Bayona, J. M.; & Albaiges, J. 1990. Assessment of fecal sterols and ketones as indicators of urban sewage inputs to coastal waters. Envir. Sci. & Tech., 24:357-363.

[12] Hill, R. T.; Straube, W. L.; Palmisano, A. C.; Gibson, S. L. & Colwell, R. R. 1996. Distribution of sewage indicated by Clostridium perfringens at a deep-water disposal site after cessation of sewage disposal. Appl. Environ. Microb., 62:1741-1746.

[13] Howington, J. P.; McFeters, G. A.; Barry, J. P. & Smith, J. J. 1992. Distribution of the McMurdo station sewage plume. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 25:324-327.

[14] Hughes, K. A. 2003. Influence of seasonal environmental variables on the distribution of presumptive fecal coliforms around an Antarctic research station. Appl. Environ. Microb., 69:4884-4891.

[15] Hughes, K. A. & Thompson, A. 2004. Distribution of sewage pollution around a maritime Antarctic research station indicated by fecal coliforms, Clostridium perfringens and fecal sterol markers. Environm. Pollut., 127:315-321.

[16] Jeng, W. L. & Han, B. C. 1994. Sedimentary coprostanol in Kaohsiung Harbor and Tan-Shui Estuary, Taiwan. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 28:494-499.

[17] Kawakami, S. K. & Montone, R. C. 2002. An efficient ethanol-based analytical protocol to quantify fecal steroids in marine sediments. J. Brazil. Chem. Soc.,13:226-232.

[18] Karentz, E.; Bothwell, M. L.; Coffin, R. B.; Hanson, A.; Herndl, G. J.; Lesser, M. P.; Moeller, R. E.; Morris, D. P.; Neale, P. J.; Sabders, R. W.; Weiler, C. S.; Wetzel, R. G. 1994. Impact of UV-radiation on pelagic freshwater ecosystems: report of working group on bacteria and phytoplankton. Arch. Hydrobiol. Beih., 43:31-69.

[19] Leeming, R. & Nichols, P. D. 1996. Concentrations of coprostanol that correspond to existing bacterial indicator guideline limits. Water Res., 30:2997-3006.

[20] Lessard, E. J. & Sieburth, J. M. 1983. Survival of natural sewage populations of enteric bacteria in diffusion and batch chambers in the marine environment. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 45:950-959

[21] Lipp, E. K.; Farrah, A. S. & Rose, J. B. 2001. Assessment and impact of microbial fecal pollution and human enteric pathogens in coastal community. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 42:286-293.

[22] Maldonado, C.; Venkatesan, M. I.; Phillips, C. R. & Bayona, J. M. 2000. Distribution of trialkylamines and coprostanol in San Pedro shelf sediments adjacent to a sewage outfall. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 40:680-687.

[23] Martins, C. C.; Venkatesan, M. I. & Montone, R. C. 2002. Sterols and Linear alkylbenzenes (LABs) in marine sediments from Admiralty Bay, Antarctica: a regional survey and preliminary results from 97-98 austral summer sampling. Antarct. Sci., 14:244-252.

[24] McFeters, G. A.; Barry, J. P. & Howington, J. P. 1993. Distribution of enteric bacteria in Antarctic seawater surrounding a sewage outfall. Water Res., 27:645-650.

[25] Mudge, S. M. & Bebianno, M. J. 1997. Sewage contamination following an accidental spillage in the Ria Formosa, Portugal. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 34:163-170.

[26] Muela, A.; Garcia-Bringas, J. M.; Arana, I. & Barcina, I. 2000. The effect of simulated solar radiation on Escherichia coli: The relative roles of UV-B; UV-A and photosynthetically Active Radiation. Microb. Ecol., 39:65-71.

[27] Muller, G.; Kanazawa, A. & Teshima, S. 1979. Sedimentary record of fecal pollution in part of Lake Constance by coprostanol determination. Naturwissenschaften. 66: 520-522.

[28] Nguyen, D.; Bruchet, A. & Arpino, P. 1995. Determination of sterols in sewage sludge by combined in situ trimethylsilylation/supercritical fluid extraction and CG/MS. Environ. Sci. Technol., 29:1686-1690.

[29] Nichols, P. D. & Leeming, R. 1991. Tracing sewage in the marine environment. Chem. Austr., 58(7):274-276.

[30] Noble, R. T.; Lee, I. M. & Schiff, K. C. 2004. Inactivation of indicator micro-organisms from various sources of fecal contamination in seawater and freshwater. J. Appl. Microb., 96:464-472.

[31] Sherwin, M. R.; Van Vleet, E. S.; Fossato, V. U. & Dolch, F. 1993. Coprostanol (5b-cholestan-3b-ol) in lagoonal sediments and mussels of Venice, Italy. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 26:501-507.

[32] Skanavis, C. & Yanko, W. A. 2001. Clostridium perfringens as a potential indicator for the presence of sewage solids in marine sediments. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 42:31-35.

[33] Sorensen, D. L.; Eberl, S. G. & Dickson, R. A. 1989. Clostridium perfringens as a point source indicator in non-point polluted streams. Water Res., 23:191-197.

[34] Venkatesan, M. I. & Santiago, C. A. 1989. Sterols in oceans sediments: novel tracers to examine habitats of cetaceans, pinnipeds, penguins and humans. Mar. Biol. 102:431-437.

[35] Venkatesan, M. I. & Kaplan, I. R. 1990. Sedimentary coprostanol as an index of sewage addition in Santa Monica basin, southern California. Environ. Sci. Technol., 24:208-214.

[36] Venkatesan, M. I. & Mirsadeghi, F. H. 1992. Coprostanol as sewage tracer in McMurdo Sound, Antarctica. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 25:328-333.