¿Crean los eventos experienciales marca-ciudad?

López, Natalia Vila; Boluda, Inés Kuster; Aguilar, J. Trinidad Marín

doi:10.7819/rbgn.v18i60.2536

Resumen

Objetivo:

Este artículo analiza hasta qué puntos los megaeventos (grandes eventos) pueden desarrollar marcas-ciudad poderosas reconocidas a nivel mundial, tema poco estudiado hasta la fecha.

Metodología:

Se ha utilizado el método cuantitativo. En concreto se efectuaron 398 encuestas a residentes en Aguascalientes (México), durante la celebración de un megaevento conocido como Feria Nacional de San Marcos.

Resultados:

Los resultados de la investigación permiten verificar que (i) respecto a los antecedentes: la actitud de los residentes hacia una marca-ciudad mejora tras las experiencias vividas en megaeventos que ocurren esa ciudad (H1) y (ii) respecto a los efectos: queda corroborado que conforme mejora la actitud hacia la marca-ciudad entre los residentes, su calidad de percibida se ve incrementada (H2).

Contribuciones:

Hasta la fecha no existe literatura que investigue cómo influyen las experiencias vividas en megaeventos culturales en la mejora de actitudes hacia marcas-ciudad y, por extensión, en la mejora de la calidad de vida. En este vacío, este trabajo trata de profundizar sobre las grandes ventajas que la celebración de megaeventos puede acarrear a una ciudad.

Palabras clave:
Megaeventos; marcas-ciudad; calidad de vida; residentes

Abstract

Purpose:

This article analyzes to what extent mega-events are capable of developing powerful city brands that are internationally recognized - a topic that has been little studied to date.

Design/methodology/approach:

We used the quantitative method. We carried out 398 surveys with citizens living in Aguascalientes (Mexico), during the mega-event known as the Feria Nacional de San Marcos.

Findings:

The results allow us to verify that (i) with regard to background: residents’ attitudes towards a city brand improve following experiences in mega-events in that city (H1) and (ii) with regard to effects: improving city brand attitudes increases residents’ quality of life (H2).

Originality/value:

To date, there is no literature investigating how experiences in cultural mega-events improve attitudes towards city brands and, consequently, improve quality of life. To fill this gap, this article investigates the great advantages which mega-events can bring to a city

Keywords:
Mega-events; city brands; quality of life; residents

Texto completo disponível apenas em PDF.

Full text available only in PDF format.

Referencias

Aaker, D. A. (1984). Strategic market management New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Anholt, S. (2007). Competitive identity London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Arnold, M. J., & Reynolds, K. (2003). Hedonic shopping motivations. Journal of Retailing, 79(2), 77-95.
Ashworth, G., & Voogd, H. (1990). Selling the city London: Belhaven.
Atkinson, G., Mourato, S., Szymanski, S., & Ozdemiroglu, E. (2008). Are we willing to pay enough to ‘back the bid’?: Valuing the intangible impacts of London’s bid to host the 2012 Summer Olympic Games. Urban Studies, 45(2), 419-444.
Baker, D. A., & Palmer, R. J. (2006). Examining the effects of perceptions of community and recreation participation on quality of life. Social Indicators Research, 75(3), 395-418.
Bentler, P. M. (2005). EQS 6 structural equations program manual Encino, CA: Multivariate Software.
Carmines, E. G., & Zeller, R. A. (1979). Reliability and validity assessment (Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences Series, Vol. 17). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Cespedes, F. V. (1993). Ethical issues in distribution. In N. C. Smith & J. Quelch (Eds.), Ethics in marketing (pp. 473-490). Illinois: Irwin Homewood.
Cifras (2010). Cuadernos de información estadística del Estado de Aguascalientes Mayo-Junio. Aguascalientes: Cifras.
Cuenca Cabeza, M. (2000). Ocio humanista: Dimensiones y manifestaciones actuales del ocio (Documento de Estudios de Ocio, n. 16). Bilbao, Espanha Universidad de Deusto.
Curi, M., Knijnik, J., & Mascarenhas, G. (2011). The Pan American Games in Rio de Janeiro 2007: Consequences of a sport mega-event on a BRIC country. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 46(2), 40-156.
Day, G. S. (1984). Strategic market planning St Paul, MN: West Publishing.
Dinnie, K. (2004). Place branding: Overview of an emerging literature. Place Branding, 1(1), 106-110.
Dolles, H., & Söderman, S. (2010). Addressing ecology and sustainability in mega-sporting events: The 2006 football World Cupin Germany. Journal of Management & Organization, 16(4), 587-600.
Fitchett, J. (2005). Consumers as stakeholders: Prospects for democracy in marketing theory. Business Ethics, Euro Review, 4(1), 14-27.
Fornell C, & Larker D. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(3), 39-50.
Fayers, P. M., Hand, D. J., Bjordal, K., & Groenvold, M. (1997). Causal indicators in quality of life research. Quality of life research, 6(5), 393-406.
Freyer, W. (2000). Event-Management im Tourismus - Kulturveranstaltungen und Festivals als touristische Leistungsangebote. In A. Dreyer (Ed.), Kulturtourismus (pp. 211-242). München: Oldenbourg.
Friedman, A., & Miles, S. (2002). Developing stakeholder theory. Journal of Management Studies, 39(1), 1-21.
Getz, D. (1997). Event management & event tourism New York: Cognizant Communication.
Hirschman, E. C., & Sheth, J. N. (1985a.). Cognitive processes in experiential consumer behavior. In Agdish N. Sheth (Ed.), Research in Consumer Behavior: A research annual (1, 67-102). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Hirschman, E. C. (1985b). Dual consciousness and altered states: Implications for consumer research. Journal of Business Research, 13(3), 223-234.
Hirschman, E. C., & Holbrook, M. C. (1982). Hedonic consumption: Emerging concepts, methods and propositions. Journal of Marketing, 46(3), 92-101.
Holbrook, M. B. (1986). Emotion in the consumption experience: Toward a new model of the human consumer. In The role of affect in consumer behavior: Emerging theories and applications, (408-410). Robert A. Peterson, Wayne D. Hoyer, and William R. Wilson (Eds.). Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath.
Holbrook, M. B., & Hirschman, E. C. (1982). The experiential aspects of consumption: Consumer fantasies, feelings, and fun. Journal of Consumer Research, 9(2), 132-140.
Holbrook, M. B., & Kim, P. C. (1985). Quality and value in the consumption experience: Phaedrus rides again. In J. Jacob, & J. C. Olson (Eds.), Perceived Quality: How Consumers View Stores and Merchandise (p. 31 -57). Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath.
Ibrahim, M. F., & Wee, N. C. (2002). The importance of entertainment in the shopping center experience: Evidence from Singapore. Journal of Real Estate Portfolio Management, 8(3), 239-254.
Jessop, B., & Sum, N.-L. (2000). An entrepreneurial city in action: Hong Kong’s emerging strategies in and for (Inter-)Urban Competition. Urban Studies, 37(12), 2287-2313.
Kao, Y., Huang, L., & Yang, M. (2007). Effects of experiential elements on experiential satisfaction an loyalty intentions: A case study of the super basketball league in Taiwan. International Journal of Revenue Management, 1(1), 79-96.
Kavaratzis M. (2004). From city marketing to city branding: Towards a theoretical framework for developing city brands. Place Branding, 1(1), 58-73.
Kavaratzis, M. (2008). From city marketing to city branding: An interdisciplinary analysis with reference to Amsterdam, Budapest and Athens (Doctoral Thesis). Rijksuniversiteit Groningen: Groningen, Netherlands.
Kilbourne W., Mcdonagh P., & Prothero A. (1997). Sustainable consumption and the quality of life: A macromarketing challengeto the dominant social paradigm. Journal of Macromarketing 17(1), 4-24.
Kotler, P., Nebenzahl, I. D., Lebedenko, V., Rainisto, S., Gertner, D., Clifton, R. & Van Ham, P. (2004). Where is place branding heading? Place Branding, 1(1), 12-35.
Küster, I., Vila, N., Aldás, J. Y., & Rodríguez, C. (2009). Efecto del patrocinio de la Copa Amercia en las percepciones de Luis Vuitton: Una perspectiva internacional. Universia Business Review, (22).
La Roca, F., & Ferrer, G. (2004). Valencia y Barcelona ante el desarrollo sostenible. ¿Sustentabilidad o marketing ambiental. Centre d’Estudis Polítics i Socials Ágora-Revista de Ciencias Sociales, 11, 53-81.
Law, C. M. (1993). Urban tourism, attracting visitors to large cities London: WM.
Leonardsen, D. (2007). Planning of mega events: Experiences and lesson. Planning Theory and Practice, 8(1), 11-30.
Lynch, K. (1960). The image of the city Cambridge: MIT Press.
Mathwick, C., Malhotra, N., & Rigdon., E. (2001). Experiential value: Conceptualization, measurement and application in the catalog and Internet shopping environment. Journal of Retailing, 77, 39 - 56.
Merrilees, B. & Miller, D. & Herington, C. (2009). Antecedents of residents’ city brand attitudes. Journal of Business Research, 62(3), 362-367.
Mo, C., Howard, D. R. & Havitz, M. E. (1993). Testing an international tourist role typology. Annals of Tourism Research, 20(2), 319-335.
Naylor, Gillian, Kleiser, Susan B., Baker, Julie, & Yorkston, Eric. (2008). Using transformational appeals to enhance the retail experience. Journal of Retailing, 84(1), 49-57.
Nunnally, J. C. & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric Theory 3rd. ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Pascual-Esteve, J. M. (1999). La estrategia de las ciudades: Los planes estratégicos como instrumento: métodos, técnicas y buenas prácticas. Barcelona: Diputació de Barcelona.
Pennings, J. (1982). The urban quality of life and entrepreneurship. Academy of Management Journal, 25(1), 63-79.
Perry, J., & Felce, D. (1995). Objective assessment of quality of life: How much do they agree with each other? Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 15, 1-19.
Pitt, Leyland, Parent, Michael, Berthon, Pierre, & Steyn, Peter G. (2010). Event sponsorship and ambush marketing: Lessons from the Beijing Olympics. Business Horizons, 53(3), 281-290.
Ponsonby-Mccabe, S., & Boyle, E. (2006). Understanding brands as experiential spaces: Axiological implications for marketing strategists. Journal of Strategic Marketing, 14, 175 - 189.
Puccinelli, N. M., Goodstein, R. C., Grewal, D., Price, R., Raghubir, P, & Stewart, D. (2009). Customer experience management in retailing: Understanding the buying process. Journal of Retailing, 85(1), 15-30.
Ritchie, J. R. B., & Yangzhou, J. (1987). The role and impact of mega-events and attractions on national and regional tourism: A conceptual and methodological overview. In The Role and Impact of Mega-Events and Attractions on Regional and National Tourism Development, 28, 17-58.
Roche, M. (1994). Mega-events and urban policy. Annals of Tourism Research, 21(1), 1-19.
Roche, M. (2003). Mega-events, time and modernity: On time structures in global society. Time and Society 12(1), 99-126.
Rogerson, R. J. (1988). Quality of life in British Cities: A summary report Universidad de Glasgow: Escocia.
Ryan, M., & Mizerski, K. (2010). Place branding for sustainable futures: A case study. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 6(1), 49-57.
Schmitt, B. (1999). Experiential Marketing. Journal of Marketing Management, 15(1), 53-67.
Sirgy, M. J. (2001). Handbook of quality-of-life research: An ethical marketing perspective. Kluwer Academic Publisher, 8.
Sirgy, M. J., & Lee, D-J. (1996). Setting socially responsible marketing objectives: A quality-of-life approach. European Journal of Marketing, 30(5), 20-34.
Sirgy, M. J. (1991). Special issue: quality of life. Journal of Business Research, 23(1), 126.
Sirgy, M. J., Samli, A. C., & Meadow, H. (1982). The interface between quality-of-life and marketing: A theoretical framework. Journal of Macromarketing and Public Policy, 1, 69-84.
Smyth, H. (1994). Marketing the city: The role of flagship developments in urban regeneration London: E & F N Spon.
Sola, F. E. (1998). The impact of mega-events. Annals of Tourism Research, 25(1), 241-245.
Tatsiopoulos, I., & Tziralis, G. (2007). New, post-Olympic Athens, in laboratory of political communication: University of Athens, about brand Greece, coordinator Metaxas A-JD Athens: General Secretariat of Information.
Tauber, E. M. (1972). Why Do People Shop? Journal of Marketing 36, 46-59.
Verhoef, P. C, Lemon, K. N., Parasuraman, A., Roggeveen, A., Tsiros, M., & Schlesinger, L. A. (2009). Customer experience creation: Determinants, dynamics and management strategies. Journal of Retailing, 85(1), 31-41.
Virgo, B., & De Chernatony, L. (2006). Delphic brand visioning to align stakeholder buy-in to the city of Birmingham brand. Journal of Brand Management, 13(6), 379-92.
Ward, S. (1998). Selling places: The marketing and promotion of towns and cities 1850-2000 London: Spon Press.
Whelan, S., & Wohlfiel, M. (2006). Communicating brands through engagement with “lived” experiences. Journal of Brand Management, 13(4/5), 313-329.
Zanger, C., & Sistenich, F. (1996). Eventmarketing: Bestandsaufnahme, Standortbestimmung und ausgewähtle theoretische Anätze zur Erklärung eines innovativen Kommunikationsinstruments. Marketing. Zeitschrift für Forshung un Praxis, 18(4), 233-242.
Zenker, S., Petersen, S., & Aholt, A. (2009). Development and implementation of the citizen satisfaction index (CSI): Four basic factors of citizens’ satisfaction Universität Hamburg, Tor zur Wel t der Wissenschaft: Hamburg.

2
Processo de Avaliação: Double Blind Review

Contribuição por autor:

Fechas de Publicación

Publicación en esta colección
Apr-Jun 2016

Histórico

Recibido
02 Jul 2015
Acepto
23 Mayo 2016

Este es un artículo publicado en acceso abierto bajo una licencia Creative Commons

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[2] Anholt, S. (2007). Competitive identity London: Palgrave Macmillan.

[3] Arnold, M. J., & Reynolds, K. (2003). Hedonic shopping motivations. Journal of Retailing, 79(2), 77-95.

[4] Ashworth, G., & Voogd, H. (1990). Selling the city London: Belhaven.

[5] Atkinson, G., Mourato, S., Szymanski, S., & Ozdemiroglu, E. (2008). Are we willing to pay enough to ‘back the bid’?: Valuing the intangible impacts of London’s bid to host the 2012 Summer Olympic Games. Urban Studies, 45(2), 419-444.

[6] Baker, D. A., & Palmer, R. J. (2006). Examining the effects of perceptions of community and recreation participation on quality of life. Social Indicators Research, 75(3), 395-418.

[7] Bentler, P. M. (2005). EQS 6 structural equations program manual Encino, CA: Multivariate Software.

[8] Carmines, E. G., & Zeller, R. A. (1979). Reliability and validity assessment (Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences Series, Vol. 17). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

[9] Cespedes, F. V. (1993). Ethical issues in distribution. In N. C. Smith & J. Quelch (Eds.), Ethics in marketing (pp. 473-490). Illinois: Irwin Homewood.

[10] Cifras (2010). Cuadernos de información estadística del Estado de Aguascalientes Mayo-Junio. Aguascalientes: Cifras.

[11] Cuenca Cabeza, M. (2000). Ocio humanista: Dimensiones y manifestaciones actuales del ocio (Documento de Estudios de Ocio, n. 16). Bilbao, Espanha Universidad de Deusto.

[12] Curi, M., Knijnik, J., & Mascarenhas, G. (2011). The Pan American Games in Rio de Janeiro 2007: Consequences of a sport mega-event on a BRIC country. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 46(2), 40-156.

[13] Day, G. S. (1984). Strategic market planning St Paul, MN: West Publishing.

[14] Dinnie, K. (2004). Place branding: Overview of an emerging literature. Place Branding, 1(1), 106-110.

[15] Dolles, H., & Söderman, S. (2010). Addressing ecology and sustainability in mega-sporting events: The 2006 football World Cupin Germany. Journal of Management & Organization, 16(4), 587-600.

[16] Fitchett, J. (2005). Consumers as stakeholders: Prospects for democracy in marketing theory. Business Ethics, Euro Review, 4(1), 14-27.

[17] Fornell C, & Larker D. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(3), 39-50.

[18] Fayers, P. M., Hand, D. J., Bjordal, K., & Groenvold, M. (1997). Causal indicators in quality of life research. Quality of life research, 6(5), 393-406.

[19] Freyer, W. (2000). Event-Management im Tourismus - Kulturveranstaltungen und Festivals als touristische Leistungsangebote. In A. Dreyer (Ed.), Kulturtourismus (pp. 211-242). München: Oldenbourg.

[20] Friedman, A., & Miles, S. (2002). Developing stakeholder theory. Journal of Management Studies, 39(1), 1-21.

[21] Getz, D. (1997). Event management & event tourism New York: Cognizant Communication.

[22] Hirschman, E. C., & Sheth, J. N. (1985a.). Cognitive processes in experiential consumer behavior. In Agdish N. Sheth (Ed.), Research in Consumer Behavior: A research annual (1, 67-102). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

[23] Hirschman, E. C. (1985b). Dual consciousness and altered states: Implications for consumer research. Journal of Business Research, 13(3), 223-234.

[24] Hirschman, E. C., & Holbrook, M. C. (1982). Hedonic consumption: Emerging concepts, methods and propositions. Journal of Marketing, 46(3), 92-101.

[25] Holbrook, M. B. (1986). Emotion in the consumption experience: Toward a new model of the human consumer. In The role of affect in consumer behavior: Emerging theories and applications, (408-410). Robert A. Peterson, Wayne D. Hoyer, and William R. Wilson (Eds.). Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath.

[26] Holbrook, M. B., & Hirschman, E. C. (1982). The experiential aspects of consumption: Consumer fantasies, feelings, and fun. Journal of Consumer Research, 9(2), 132-140.

[27] Holbrook, M. B., & Kim, P. C. (1985). Quality and value in the consumption experience: Phaedrus rides again. In J. Jacob, & J. C. Olson (Eds.), Perceived Quality: How Consumers View Stores and Merchandise (p. 31 -57). Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath.

[28] Ibrahim, M. F., & Wee, N. C. (2002). The importance of entertainment in the shopping center experience: Evidence from Singapore. Journal of Real Estate Portfolio Management, 8(3), 239-254.

[29] Jessop, B., & Sum, N.-L. (2000). An entrepreneurial city in action: Hong Kong’s emerging strategies in and for (Inter-)Urban Competition. Urban Studies, 37(12), 2287-2313.

[30] Kao, Y., Huang, L., & Yang, M. (2007). Effects of experiential elements on experiential satisfaction an loyalty intentions: A case study of the super basketball league in Taiwan. International Journal of Revenue Management, 1(1), 79-96.

[31] Kavaratzis M. (2004). From city marketing to city branding: Towards a theoretical framework for developing city brands. Place Branding, 1(1), 58-73.

[32] Kavaratzis, M. (2008). From city marketing to city branding: An interdisciplinary analysis with reference to Amsterdam, Budapest and Athens (Doctoral Thesis). Rijksuniversiteit Groningen: Groningen, Netherlands.

[33] Kilbourne W., Mcdonagh P., & Prothero A. (1997). Sustainable consumption and the quality of life: A macromarketing challengeto the dominant social paradigm. Journal of Macromarketing 17(1), 4-24.

[34] Kotler, P., Nebenzahl, I. D., Lebedenko, V., Rainisto, S., Gertner, D., Clifton, R. & Van Ham, P. (2004). Where is place branding heading? Place Branding, 1(1), 12-35.

[35] Küster, I., Vila, N., Aldás, J. Y., & Rodríguez, C. (2009). Efecto del patrocinio de la Copa Amercia en las percepciones de Luis Vuitton: Una perspectiva internacional. Universia Business Review, (22).

[36] La Roca, F., & Ferrer, G. (2004). Valencia y Barcelona ante el desarrollo sostenible. ¿Sustentabilidad o marketing ambiental. Centre d’Estudis Polítics i Socials Ágora-Revista de Ciencias Sociales, 11, 53-81.

[37] Law, C. M. (1993). Urban tourism, attracting visitors to large cities London: WM.

[38] Leonardsen, D. (2007). Planning of mega events: Experiences and lesson. Planning Theory and Practice, 8(1), 11-30.

[39] Lynch, K. (1960). The image of the city Cambridge: MIT Press.

[40] Mathwick, C., Malhotra, N., & Rigdon., E. (2001). Experiential value: Conceptualization, measurement and application in the catalog and Internet shopping environment. Journal of Retailing, 77, 39 - 56.

[41] Merrilees, B. & Miller, D. & Herington, C. (2009). Antecedents of residents’ city brand attitudes. Journal of Business Research, 62(3), 362-367.

[42] Mo, C., Howard, D. R. & Havitz, M. E. (1993). Testing an international tourist role typology. Annals of Tourism Research, 20(2), 319-335.

[43] Naylor, Gillian, Kleiser, Susan B., Baker, Julie, & Yorkston, Eric. (2008). Using transformational appeals to enhance the retail experience. Journal of Retailing, 84(1), 49-57.

[44] Nunnally, J. C. & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric Theory 3rd. ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.

[45] Pascual-Esteve, J. M. (1999). La estrategia de las ciudades: Los planes estratégicos como instrumento: métodos, técnicas y buenas prácticas. Barcelona: Diputació de Barcelona.

[46] Pennings, J. (1982). The urban quality of life and entrepreneurship. Academy of Management Journal, 25(1), 63-79.

[47] Perry, J., & Felce, D. (1995). Objective assessment of quality of life: How much do they agree with each other? Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 15, 1-19.

[48] Pitt, Leyland, Parent, Michael, Berthon, Pierre, & Steyn, Peter G. (2010). Event sponsorship and ambush marketing: Lessons from the Beijing Olympics. Business Horizons, 53(3), 281-290.

[49] Ponsonby-Mccabe, S., & Boyle, E. (2006). Understanding brands as experiential spaces: Axiological implications for marketing strategists. Journal of Strategic Marketing, 14, 175 - 189.

[50] Puccinelli, N. M., Goodstein, R. C., Grewal, D., Price, R., Raghubir, P, & Stewart, D. (2009). Customer experience management in retailing: Understanding the buying process. Journal of Retailing, 85(1), 15-30.

[51] Ritchie, J. R. B., & Yangzhou, J. (1987). The role and impact of mega-events and attractions on national and regional tourism: A conceptual and methodological overview. In The Role and Impact of Mega-Events and Attractions on Regional and National Tourism Development, 28, 17-58.

[52] Roche, M. (1994). Mega-events and urban policy. Annals of Tourism Research, 21(1), 1-19.

[53] Roche, M. (2003). Mega-events, time and modernity: On time structures in global society. Time and Society 12(1), 99-126.

[54] Rogerson, R. J. (1988). Quality of life in British Cities: A summary report Universidad de Glasgow: Escocia.

[55] Ryan, M., & Mizerski, K. (2010). Place branding for sustainable futures: A case study. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 6(1), 49-57.

[56] Schmitt, B. (1999). Experiential Marketing. Journal of Marketing Management, 15(1), 53-67.

[57] Sirgy, M. J. (2001). Handbook of quality-of-life research: An ethical marketing perspective. Kluwer Academic Publisher, 8.

[58] Sirgy, M. J., & Lee, D-J. (1996). Setting socially responsible marketing objectives: A quality-of-life approach. European Journal of Marketing, 30(5), 20-34.

[59] Sirgy, M. J. (1991). Special issue: quality of life. Journal of Business Research, 23(1), 126.

[60] Sirgy, M. J., Samli, A. C., & Meadow, H. (1982). The interface between quality-of-life and marketing: A theoretical framework. Journal of Macromarketing and Public Policy, 1, 69-84.

[61] Smyth, H. (1994). Marketing the city: The role of flagship developments in urban regeneration London: E & F N Spon.

[62] Sola, F. E. (1998). The impact of mega-events. Annals of Tourism Research, 25(1), 241-245.

[63] Tatsiopoulos, I., & Tziralis, G. (2007). New, post-Olympic Athens, in laboratory of political communication: University of Athens, about brand Greece, coordinator Metaxas A-JD Athens: General Secretariat of Information.

[64] Tauber, E. M. (1972). Why Do People Shop? Journal of Marketing 36, 46-59.

[65] Verhoef, P. C, Lemon, K. N., Parasuraman, A., Roggeveen, A., Tsiros, M., & Schlesinger, L. A. (2009). Customer experience creation: Determinants, dynamics and management strategies. Journal of Retailing, 85(1), 31-41.

[66] Virgo, B., & De Chernatony, L. (2006). Delphic brand visioning to align stakeholder buy-in to the city of Birmingham brand. Journal of Brand Management, 13(6), 379-92.

[67] Ward, S. (1998). Selling places: The marketing and promotion of towns and cities 1850-2000 London: Spon Press.

[68] Whelan, S., & Wohlfiel, M. (2006). Communicating brands through engagement with “lived” experiences. Journal of Brand Management, 13(4/5), 313-329.

[69] Zanger, C., & Sistenich, F. (1996). Eventmarketing: Bestandsaufnahme, Standortbestimmung und ausgewähtle theoretische Anätze zur Erklärung eines innovativen Kommunikationsinstruments. Marketing. Zeitschrift für Forshung un Praxis, 18(4), 233-242.

[70] Zenker, S., Petersen, S., & Aholt, A. (2009). Development and implementation of the citizen satisfaction index (CSI): Four basic factors of citizens’ satisfaction Universität Hamburg, Tor zur Wel t der Wissenschaft: Hamburg.

Brasil