Career choices: Adaptation and initial evidence of the Work Volition Scale in Brazil

Abstract

Volition is the individual perception of one’s ability to make decisions and career choices despite constraints by the external environment. It is a relevant concept in the Psychology Working Theory, which highlights the role played by contextual factors, social class, privilege, and freedom of choice in career building. This study’s objective was to adapt the Work Volition Scale to the Brazilian context and find initial validity evidence. The sample was composed of 584 Brazilian workers from different social strata. Multi-group confirmatory factor analysis and analysis of correlations indicated that the three-dimensional internal structure is adequate; invariance was found for sex, subjective social class, and the strategies used to apply the instrument. Furthermore, the results suggest a positive association between volition and job satisfaction, while financial constraints are negatively related to job satisfaction and satisfaction with life. The results contribute to studies on career and provide an instrument to be used in vocational and career counseling and research to support public policy from a more inclusive perspective.

Keywords:
Volition; Career; Work Psychology; Scale Validation; Social Class

Resumo

Volição é a percepção individual sobre a possibilidade de fazer escolhas e tomar decisões de carreira, apesar das restrições apresentadas pelo ambiente externo à pessoa. Trata-se de um conceito relevante na Teoria da Psicologia do Trabalhar em que se destacam os fatores contextuais e o papel que a classe social, privilégio e liberdade de escolha têm na construção de carreira dos trabalhadores. O objetivo deste estudo é adaptar e levantar evidências iniciais de validade para o Brasil da Work Volition Scale. Participaram desta pesquisa 584 trabalhadores brasileiros de diferentes extratos sociais, e os resultados apontaram, a partir de procedimentos fatoriais confirmatório, multigrupo e análise de correlações, uma adequação da estrutura interna de três dimensões, invariância para sexo, classe social subjetiva e forma de aplicação. Os resultados sugerem uma associação positiva para volição e satisfação com o trabalho, enquanto as restrições financeiras se relacionam negativamente com a satisfação com o trabalho e vida. O estudo avança com perspectiva inclusiva nos estudos de carreira e disponibiliza um instrumento para progresso de pesquisas, prática de orientação de carreira e políticas públicas no Brasil.

Palavras-chave:
Volição; Carreira; Psicologia do Trabalhar; Validação de Escala; Classe Social

Given the current highly connected global environment, and with the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic, the world witnessed a deterioration of living and working conditions throughout 2020. According to the United Nations (Organização das Nações Unidas, 2020), 400 million jobs were extinct globally, an impact more intensively experienced in Latin America. In addition to increased unemployment rates, the Brazilian workforce was underutilized and greatly discouraged by these conditions (Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística [IBGE], 2020a).

As reported by the academic literature social inequalities had become even more vivid. For example, Blustein (2013) states that the job market is unequal, considerably classist, racist, sexist, and heterosexist. In this sense, structural factors preventing people from accessing the world of work with equalitarian conditions and resources are acknowledged (Diemer & Ali, 2009; Prilleltensky & Stead, 2013). This is a realistic understanding of career management, in which one’s origin and global, social, and cultural context determine one’s personal and professional history (Baruch & Vardi, 2016; Ludwig-Mayerhofer, Meyer, & Steyrer, 2007).

This study’s objective is to adapt the Work Volition Scale - WVS (^{Escala de Volição no Trabalhoin Portuguese}) to the Brazilian context and find validity evidence (Duffy, Diemer, Perry, Laurenzi, & Torrey, 2012). The instrument was originally developed in the United States, and thus far, Turkey is the only other only country where this instrument was adapted (Buyukgoze-kavas & Şule, 2019). Hence, no studies were found in Brazil exploring the concept of volition, so this study is expected to support the expansion of an inclusive perspective and debate concerning the contextual factors influencing the field of vocational and career counseling.

This study presents the adaptation of the original instrument according to the guidelines provided by the International Test Commission (International Test Commission [ITC], 2017). Data were collected face-to-face and online, and multi-group confirmatory factor analysis was performed in addition to internal consistency analysis. As a result, positive evidence was found of content, and internal and external validity, as well as precision indicators supporting the version adapted to Brazilian Portuguese. The process is presented in detail.

1. Volition

At the expense of the socio-cultural and economic context, a predominance of individual agency has been observed throughout the development of career theories (Stead, 2013; Swanson, 2013). Intending to complement existing theories, Blustein (2001, 2006), a relevant contemporary author in the vocational and career counseling field, developed the Psychology Working Theory, highlighting the context and role of social class, privilege, and freedom of choice on career building.

The Psychology of Working Theory (PWT) emerges to make vocational and career theories more inclusive, aiming to address all workers and those who want to work (Duffy, Blustein, Diemer, & Autin, 2016). According to this theory, sociocultural factors are paramount to understanding all peoples’ decisions and work experiences, particularly contingent or peripheral workers (Savickas, 2010) or even unemployed and discouraged workers (Blustein, 2006, 2013). Marginalized people (due to their race, ethnicity, social class, or gender, for instance) and those who have faced economic constraints throughout their lives are individuals to whom the context determines their working experiences. In other words, marginalization and lack of access to capital and social capital are thought to be the primary predictors of access to decent work (Duffy et al., 2016).

Regarding economic restrictions, the objective is to understand how a worker’s social class impacts his/her access to decent jobs, considering it is a relevant factor for life in society linked to power and social oppression, as well as race and gender (Liu, 2013). However, in classism, there is no identity in evidence. Instead, it seems to be a social normative, even if unconscious or invisible, and at times, interconnected with other social markers. According to the PWT, marginalized workers facing economic constraints and groups downgraded to less powerful positions in society are less likely to access decent jobs.

Within this theory, “social identities function as key markers of the ways in which people (and groups of people) are differentially privileged and marginalized in the attainment of decent work” (Duffy et al., 2016, p. 131).

This study focuses on career adaptability (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012) and volition (Duffy, Diemer, Perry, et al., 2012), considering the predictors and mediators of decent work. Marginalization and economic constraints within the PWT negatively predict adaptability and volition; hence, people experiencing these conditions are less likely to attain a decent job (Duffy et al., 2016). Additionally, psychological and economic variables moderate the relationship between these constructs, such as proactive personality, critical awareness, social support, and economic conditions. Furthermore, there is an understanding within PWT that job satisfaction and satisfaction with life, in general, is obtained when survival, social connection, and self-determination needs are met (Autin et al., 2019; Duffy et al., 2016). Finally, note that by focusing on decent work in its theoretical proposition, PWT combines its research agenda with the role of the International Labor Organization (ILO), understanding the need to expand labor rights, dialogue, and social protection (Organização Internacional do Trabalho [OIT], 2020).

The debate around the concept of volitionis not new in the field of vocational and career counseling. Lazarick and collaborators (1988) address this concept from the perspective of limited freedom in life and cite Skinner when arguing the importance of understanding the effects of an environment in which there is less control and autonomy on human behavior. From a career development standpoint, Duffy and Dik (2009) consider work volition to be “an individual’s ability to freely make career choices, including the initial job choice when first entering the work world and any subsequent career decisions.” The authors of that study stress the importance of understanding the role of volition in the career-building process, considering adverse circumstances that may affect one’s freedom of choice. The analysis focuses on external influences, that is, those external to individuals, such as family’s needs and expectations, poverty, marginalization, and stigma, which may restrict one’s choices from childhood to retirement (Duffy & Dik, 2009). In short, one’s life circumstances and experiences may significantly affect the degree to which career decisions are volitional.

2. Work Volition Scale

Based on Blustein (2006), Duffy and collaborators (2012) conceptualize volition as “a person’s perceived capacity to make occupational choices despite constraints” (Duffy, Diemer, Perry, et al., 2012, p. 400). When developing the instrument to measure volition, the authors performed a literature review on the PWT and included items to identify the most common barriers adults face, including discrimination, family demands, and financial and economic pressure. The 45 items were presented to an expert panel to assess the relevance and clarity of items; 41 items remained and were empirically analyzed (Duffy, Diemer, Perry, et al., 2012).

Regarding the instrument’s validation process, the authors addressed 232 American adults. The sample was primarily composed of women (85%), self-reported Afro-descendants (52%), and full-time workers (68%). The exploratory factor analysis (EFA) resulted in the items been reduced to 14. Later, another item was excluded for not significantly loading in the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Hence, the instrument remained with three dimensions containing 13 items rated on a seven-point Likert scale ranging from (1) totally disagree to (7) totally agree. The instrument and its dimensions presented good internal consistency (α=0.85), volition (α=0.69), financial constraints (α=0.781), and structural constraints (α=0.64) (Duffy, Diemer, Perry, et al., 2012).

The original instrument has three distinct dimensions, each composed of four or five items. Dimension 1, “Volition,” has four items and refers to the individuals’ perception and belief that they can make career choices. This dimension explores the choices that define career and transitions (e.g., “I have been able to choose the jobs I have wanted”; this dimension’s internal consistency was α=0.69). Dimension 2, “Financial Constraints,” contains five items and addresses the financial constraints an individual perceives when entering the job market or transitioning between careers, or yet, due to the need to provide for his/her family, all things which, otherwise, would limit other choices (e.g., “Due to my financial situation, I will need to take any job I can find”) the internal consistency index obtained for this dimension was α=0.78). Finally, dimension 3, “Structural Restrictions,” with four items, is intended to understand workers’ perception regarding structural economic and social aspects that may negatively impact their career choices, such as unemployment, inflation, and discrimination. In this last dimension, the individual faces environmental factors that restrict his/her choices (e.g., “I feel outside forces have really limited my work and career options”; this dimension’s internal consistency was α=0.64) (Duffy et al., 2016, 2012). The first dimension presents items that describe volition, i.e., aspects that favor career choices, while the second and third dimensions present an unfavorable perception. This fact impacts how data are analyzed in this study.

The study conducted in Turkey also investigated validity evidence for the adapted instrument, reporting that its factor structure adapted well to the context. Consistent fit indexes were found (Root Mean Square of Approximation - RMSEA=.048; Comparative Fit Index - CFI=.95; Tucker-Lewis Index - TLI=.95) (Buyukgoze-kavas & Şule, 2019). Additionally, a student version more appropriate to students experiencing high levels of social barriers was developed (Duffy, Diemer, & Jadidian, 2012). The Work Volition Scale - Student Version - WVS-SV is expected to explore the potential of students to build their future careers. This scale has not been adapted for the Brazilian context yet.

Other constructs possibly related to volition are discussed by studies addressing career development, such as barriers and locus of control. Career barriers are usually associated with economic, familial, and personal factors. For example, unemployment, family conflicts, geographical restrictions, and discrimination are considered career barriers specific to individuals. In turn, locus of control refers to an individual’s control over his/her work environment. However, the authors of the original scale considered that neither of these constructs portrays one’s subjective belief regarding his/her ability to chose in the work world (Duffy, Diemer, Perry, et al., 2012), as the concept under study does.

Studies based on the PWT addressing the volition construct among adult workers report that people with a sense of vocation are more likely to feel they have career options, and for this reason, are more satisfied with their lives and jobs (Ahn, et al., 2017). In this sense, the greater the volition, the higher the job satisfaction, considering people seek jobs that meet their preferences and meanings (Duffy, Autin, & Bott, 2015). Additionally, volition was found to moderate the relationship between adaptability and employability (Kwon, 2019). Finally, subjective social class was found to predict volition among undergraduate students (Duffy, Douglass, Autin, & Allan, 2016), while volition is affected by economic deprivation and predicts academic satisfaction longitudinally (Allan, Sterling, & Duffy, 2020).

3. Method

3.1. Instrument adaptation procedures

Theoretical, cultural, psychological, idiomatic, linguistic, and contextual aspects need to be considered when adapting an instrument to the target language (ITC, 2017). This study complied with the guidelines proposed by Borsa and Seize (2017). After obtaining the consent of the original instrument’s primary author, it was translated into Portuguese by these authors and an English teacher. The three versions were reconciled, then organized and assessed by two experts experienced in career counseling. Hence, this step consisted of adjusting the instrument conceptually for the Brazilian population and context.

Next, a pilot study included five participants with the target population's characteristics: four with a low educational level (from primary to high school) and one participant with a graduate degree. The pilot study consisted of individual meetings in which the participants read the items provided, and the primary author asked whether they had understood the items or had any doubts. This stage of the adaptation process revealed the participants had problems understanding some terms, including the Likert scale used to rate the statements. Therefore, the items’ semantic structure was adapted to the participants’ context, and a glossary and a visual scale were developed to facilitate understanding during field research. This last stage was essential to refining and adjusting the instrument to the target population. After determining that no additional aspects required changes, this process was concluded to initiate data collection.

This study was submitted to and approved by the Institutional Review Board at the Federal University of Espírito Santo (No. CAAE: 21045119.0.0000.5542) and all participants provided their consent. Those who participated in a face-to-face interview signed free and informed consent forms, and those who participated online gave their consent before gaining access to the instrument.

3.2. Instruments

The participants completed a) a sociodemographic questionnaire addressing information regarding age, sex, race, education, occupation, and family income; b) Generic Job Satisfaction Scale (Salessi, De Andrade, & Omar, 2020), c) Satisfaction with Life Scale (Zanon, Bardagi, Layous, & Hutz, 2014); d) MacArthur Subjective Scale of Subjectivity Social Status (Giatti, Camelo, Rodrigues, Barreto, 2012); and e) the adapted version of Work Volition Scale (Duffy, Diemer, Perry, et al., 2012). The use of these scales is based on the theoretical proposition of the PWT, according to which volition and economic status are factors conditioning access to decent work, while with job and life result from such access (Duffy et al., 2016). Note that the instruments addressing subjective social class, job satisfaction, and satisfaction with life were already validated in Brazil, and the last two constructs specifically support the external validity of the volition instrument adapted in this study.

The Generic Job Satisfaction Scale was originally developed by Macdonald and MacIntyre (1997) and later adapted for the Brazilian context by Salessi and collaborators (2020). It is used in this study with five items structured for the non-organizational work context (e.g., “In general terms, I have a good job”). This instrument is rated on a five-point Likert scale ranging from (1) completely disagree to (5) completely agree, and presented good psychometric properties (Cronbach’s alpha equal to 0.75) and satisfactory fit indexes for the model [χ2/gl=1.09, CFI=0.99, TLI=0.99 and RMSEA (90%CI) = 0.023 [0.000-0.121]]

The Satisfaction with Life Scale was originally developed by Pavot and Diener (1985) and adapted in Brazil by Zanon and collaborators (2014). The instrument presents good precision (Cronbach’s alpha equal to 0.87) and comprises five items (e.g., “In most ways my life is close to my ideal.”) rated on a seven-point Likert scale, ranging from (1) ‘totally disagree’ to (7) ‘totally agree.’

In addition to an objective estimation of income that is obtained from demographic data, similar to other studies addressing the PWT, we also sought to identify the participants’ subjective social class (Douglass, Velez, Conlin, Duffy, & England, 2017; Duffy, Autin, England, Douglass, & Gensmer, 2018; Duffy, Velez, et al., 2018; Kozan, Işik, & Blustein, 2019; Tokar & Kaut, 2018). Allan and collaborators (2014) note that this approach measures social class subjectively experienced by people, and this perception translates how an individual sees him/herself and understands how classes work.

For this reason, the MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status developed by Adler and collaborators (2000) was used. It was adapted for the Brazilian context by Giatti, Camelo, Rodrigues and Barreto (2012) and presented a Kappa index equal to 0.62 (0.58 to 0.64) and, in general, good test-retest stability (Ferreira, Giatti, Figueiredo, Mello, & Barreto, 2018; Giatti et al., 2012). The instrument presents a drawing of a ladder with ten rungs representing the respondents’ perceived rank in society.

Similar to American studies (Duffy, Douglass, et al., 2016) that determine the participants’ sociodemographic profile, we also sought to first identify the participants’ objective social class according to a classification used in Brazil - Class A, B, C, D, or E (Kamakura & Mazzon, 2018). However, this classification was not appropriate in the Brazilian study because the participants in the pilot test could not locate themselves for ranking in the groups suggested. Therefore, the MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status, the participants’ family income (Reais), and the number of family members were used to determine the participants’ subjective and objective social class, respectively.

3.3. Data Collection

First, data was collected face-to-face, but later, due to mandatory social isolation measures imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic, data was collected online. The face-to-face data collection addressed 58.7% of the participants and took place in a public vocational school in March 2020. The collection of data was then completed online using a Google form. The snowball sampling was the recruitment technique adopted in the online stage. Hence, a non-probabilistic sample was addressed, and data collection ceased in June 2020. Data collected face-to-face were typed and data collected online was automatically transferred to the database. Next, missing data were treated and repeated information, international participants, and inadequate answers to control questions were excluded.

3.4. Data Analysis

The Jasp (Jasp Team, 2020) and MPlus (Muthén & Muthén, 2017) were used in data analysis. CFA was initially used based on the Robust Maximum Likelihood Estimation to seek validity evidence of the instrument’s internal structure (Franco, Valentini, & Iglesias, 2017). Adjustment indexes were considered: CFI (expected value: ≥.90-95); TLI (expected value: ≥ .95); RMSEA (expected value: <0.06 to 0.08 with a 90% confidence interval); Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR - expected value: ≤ 0.08 or ≤ 0.010) (Brown, 2006; Byrne, 2016). Later, a Multi-group Confirmatory Factor Analysis (MGCFA) (Putnick & Bornstein, 2016) was performed to assess configural, metric and scalar invariance between men and women, between subjective social classes (high and low), and between the online and offline applications. This analysis was intended to verify the instrument’s configuration and metric parameters between the groups analyzed in the Brazilian context, a requirement for comparing and assessing differences between groups using subjective measures. The MGCFA was used as a criterion to verify invariance of difference criteria of up to 0.01 in the CFI and SRMR (Chen, 2007). Note that the subjective social classes (high and low) do not correspond to reality but needed to be categorized because the invariance test requires variables to be ordinal. Subsequently, Pearson’s r-type correlation analysis was performed to verify the instrument’s external validity (Andrade & Valentini, 2018). Internal consistency was verified using Cronbach’s alpha and coefficient Omega (Trizano-Hermosilla & Alvarado, 2016).

4. Results

4.1. Participants

The final sample was composed of 584 Brazilian adult workers, most from the state of Espírito Santo (77%). Of these, 28.4% were men and 71.2% women, aged 34 on average (SD=12.33 years). Regarding ethnicity/race, 38.4% of the respondents reported being Caucasian, 15.1% Afro-descendent, 41.8% mixed race, and the remaining 4.6% were Asian, Indigenous, or did not know. Regarding the level of education, 55.31% did not have a college degree, while 43.15% had a college degree, specialization, or a graduate degree. According to the IBGE (2020b), the average monthlyper capitaincome in 2019 in Brazil was R$1,439.00; 51.4% of the participants reported receiving the average monthly income or less. Regarding occupation, 68% were either formally or informally employed, were public employees, self-employed, or had their own businesses; 27% were unemployed, 3% were retired, while 2% did not answer.

4.2. Internal structure evidence

First, CFA was performed to obtain evidence of the internal structure of the volition construct measured by the Brazilian version of the Work Volition Scale. We also tested whether the three-dimension factor structure - Volition, Financial Constraints, and Structural Constraints - was adequately adapted to the sample of Brazilian workers. MLR estimation showed that the original model was properly adequate to data [χ2/df=2.33, CFI=0.94, TLI=0.93, SRMR=0.040 and RMSEA (CI90%)=0.048 [0.038-0.058]]. Figure 1 presents the WVS’s structural model.

Figure 1.
Work Volition Scale’s Structural Model

The McDonald’s Omega precision indicator, a composite reliability, was estimated for the metric structure of three sub-dimensions: 1) volition (ω=0.837) and 2) financial constraints (ω=0.806) obtained good and excellent indicators respectively, while the dimension 3) structural restrictions (ω=0.683) obtained a regular/acceptable indicator. Hence, the instrument’s version, adapted to the Brazilian context, presented an internal factor structure congruent with the original American model (Duffy, Diemer, Perry, et al., 2012) and satisfactory precision indexes that enable the instrument to be used in research contexts and assessments in Brazil.

4.3. Work Volition Scale’s invariance evidence

MGCFA was performed to assess the WVS’ configural, metric, and scalar invariance for sex (men, women), subjective social class (High, Low), and how the instrument was applied online, offline), as shown in Table 1.

Table 1.
Multi-Group Confirmatory Factor Analysis (MGCFA)

Sex (Men/women)	χ²	gl	RMSEA	SRMR	TLI	CFI	∆CFI	∆SMR
Configural	207	124	0.04[0.03-0.05]	0.04	0.94	0.95	-	-
Metric	214	134	0.04[0.03-0.05]	0.04	0.95	0.96	0.00**	0.00**
Scalar	242	144	0.04[0.03-0.05}	0.05	0.95	0.95	0.01**	0.01**
Subj. Social Class (High/Low)	χ²	gl	RMSEA	SRMR	TLI	CFI	∆CFI	∆SMR
Configural	253	124	0.06[0.05-0.07]	0.05	0.89	0.91	-	-
Metric	258	134	0.05[0.04-0.07]	0.06	0.90	0.91	0.00**	0.01**
Scalar	269	144	0.05[0.04-0.06]	0.06	0.90	0.91	0.00**	0.00**
Data collection (Online/offline)	χ²	gl	RMSEA	SRMR	TLI	CFI	∆CFI	∆SMR
Configural	249	124	0.05[0.04-0.06]	0.05	0.93	0.94	-	-
Metric	271	134	0.05[0.04-0.06]	0.06	0.93	0.94	0.00**	0.01**
Scalar	328	144	0.06[0.05-0.07]	0.06	0.91	0.92	0.02**	0.00**

• Note^** p<.001.
• Source: Developed by the authors

As shown in Table 1, regarding gender, the instrument presented configural, metric, and scalar invariance in the WVS’ different constructs. The same analysis was conducted for the two groups of subjective social class, i.e., self-perceived rank in society according to the MacArthur scale. Two groups of subjective social class were coded, CSSHigh (high subjective social class), which corresponded to rungs 6 to 10, which represented the top of the social ladder, and CSSLow (low subjective social class) corresponding to rungs 1 to 5 (42.6% of this study’s sample). The invariance model was also tested for the strategy used to collect data (online/offline), confirming the invariance of the scale’s measurement parameters.

Similar to sex and data collection strategy, the MGCFA’s results concerning the subjective social classes also presented configural, metric, and scalar invariance between groups, confirming the WVS’s adapted version was invariant in the three analyses concerning configuration, measure, and errors, aspects that, in general, enable comparing and analyzing differences between groups with technical and methodological rigor.

4.4. External validity evidence

To assess aspects of the WVS’ external validity, Pearson’s r correlation analysis was performed to verify associations between the instrument’s three dimensions (volition, financial constraints, and structural constraints) and the job satisfaction and satisfaction with life constructs (Table 2).

Table 2.
Correlations between volition, job satisfaction, and satisfaction with life

Variable	D_Volition		D_FinConst		D_StructConstr		Job_Sat		Life_Sat
1. D_Volition	-
2. D_FinConstr	-0.42	**	-
3. D_ StructConstr	-0.37	**	0.53	**	-
4. Job_Sat	0.42	**	-0.32	**	-0.44	**	-
5. Life_Sat	0.50	**	-0.43	**	-0.47	**	0.50	**	-

• Source: Developed by the authors.
• Note^** p<.001. Legend: D_Volition (volition dimension); D_FinConstr (Financial constraints dimension); D_StructConstr (structural constraints dimension); Job_Sat (Job satisfaction); Life_Sat (Life satisfaction).

As expected in the original theoretical model, Table 2 presents divergent correlations with different signs between volition and financial and structural constraints. The WVS was developed with dimensions that assess perceptions that favor career choices (dimension 1 - volition) and also unfavorable perceptions (dimensions 2 and 3 - financial constraints and structural constraints). The financial and structural constraints present a moderate positive correlation (r >0.40), whereas volition presents a weak and moderate negative association with both constraints.

Still, based on Pearson’s r correlations, the financial constraints dimension appears to be weakly and negatively correlated (r<0.40) with job satisfaction. It is worth noting that satisfaction with life is moderately and positively associated with one’s ability to make career choices, represented by the volition dimension (1) and job satisfaction.

5. Discussion

In general, this study’s results present positive evidence of the Work Volition Scale version adapted for the Brazilian context. The items’ translation and adaptation complied with technical and methodological guidelines provided by the International Text Commission (2017). In addition, the items were semantically adapted, and additional instructions were provided to populations with lower educational levels, and the Brazilian version showed evidence of content validity.

The studies based on the PWT have applied it to other contexts, considering that the meaning assigned to labor depends on one’s culture (Blustein, 2006), and most studies conducted thus far have only explored experiences in the American context (Pires & Andrade, 2020). In this sense, this study supports the validity of the instrument’s adapted version and theory to the Brazilian context, which is an unexplored Latin-American socioeconomic setting with a high unemployment rate and many informal jobs.

The results obtained from the CFA reinforce the model’s theoretical dimensional structure and its measure in the Brazilian version. Adequate precision levels, similar to the original version, were obtained: 1) volition (α=0.83; original WVS α=0.69), 2) financial constraints (α=0.80; original WVS α=0.78); and 3) structural constraints (α=0.67; original WVS α=0.64). Compared to the Turkish version, adapted with 444 workers (Buyukgoze-kavas & Şule, 2019), the only study identified thus far, the analyzes confirmed a three-factor structure and presented adequate internal consistency coefficients: 1) volition (α=0.75), 2) financial constraints (α=0.82); and 3) structural constraints (α=0.72).

Both the WVS’ original study (Duffy, Diemer, Perry, et al., 2012) and the Turkish study (Buyukgoze-kavas & Şule, 2019) presented a link between volition and job satisfaction, raising a theoretical hypothesis that people with high levels of volition would also be more satisfied with their lives in general. This study’s results concerning Pearson’s r correlations between the Brazilian instrument’s dimensions and job satisfaction and satisfaction with life also evidenced relationships between one’s perception regarding the ability to make career choices and the life and job domains; good external evidence was also found.

The original study encourages exploring sociodemographic differences, such as sex, race, and social class. Both the original and the Turkish studies presented invariance for sex (Buyukgoze-kavas & Şule, 2019; Duffy, Diemer, Perry, et al., 2012). With these considerations in mind, this study found the instrument’s invariance between men and women, high and low subjective social class, and between data collection strategies (electronic form online and face-to-face).

Regarding the sample, this study presented a heterogeneous group in terms of socioeconomic and educational characteristics. It is worth noting that using two different strategies to collect data favored the sample’s composition. The heterogeneous social class of this study’s sample addresses the limitations presented by the Turkish study, in which most of the sample was composed of individuals with a college degree. The authors also suggested adopting different strategies to collect data (Buyukgoze-kavas & Şule, 2019).

This study’s initial results suggest that when people perceive they have autonomy and the ability to make career choices, they are more satisfied with their jobs, a finding that corroborates other studies addressing PWT. Furthermore, such studies suggest that people are happier with their jobs because their careers fit their personal preferences and give meaning to their work (Ahn, Kim, & Lee, 2017; Allan et al., 2014; Duffy, Autin, & Bott, 2015; Duffy, Bott, Torrey, & Webster, 2013). Nonetheless, people with low levels of volition due to financial constraints are less satisfied with their jobs, suggesting that economic barriers may impact one’s perception and relationship with his/her career (Allan et al., 2014).

6. Final Considerations

This study’s objective was to adapt and identify initial validity of the Work Volition Scale for the Brazilian context. This instrument was designed to understand people’s perceptions regarding career choices despite constraints. In addition to the adapted version presented in this study, the Work Volition Scale will be adapted to the Brazilian context (Ribeiro, Teixeira, & Ambiel, 2019). A theoretical review of the Psychology of Working Theory (PWT) (Pires, Ribeiro, & Andrade, 2020) is included here, contributing to scientific advancement and supporting future studies addressing the psychology of work in the Brazilian context. Additionally, the results presented in this study and by other studies using this instrument are expected to support a cross-cultural understanding of the PWT, and provide specific results representative of Latin America and Brazil.

The results present evidence of content, and internal and external structure validity, in addition to precision indicators that corroborate the use of the adapted version of the Work Volition Scale in the Brazilian context. Additionally, correlations with external variables confirmed convergent validity, indicating that work volition tends to increase one’s job satisfaction and satisfaction with life in general. Additionally, from a theoretical perspective, financial and structural constraints tend to decrease both levels of satisfaction.

Regarding sociodemographic data, studies addressing more inclusive samples with different characteristics are needed to understand career theories better. In this sense, using two different strategies to collect data in this study seems to have favored a more heterogeneous sample. This study is limited by the fact that most participants were from the southeast of Brazil. Overcoming this limitation in future studies will provide new validity evidence of the WVS’s adapted version and a better understanding of career and labor aspects among the Brazilian population’s different sociodemographic profiles.

Additionally, future studies are expected to confirm or add validity evidence of the Work Volition Scale’s adapted version, strengthening the instrument in the Brazilian context. Future studies can also explore demographic differences concerning race, gender, and social class, verifying how the construct and instrument behave over time to understand better how dynamic or stable the work volition construct is. Finally, qualitatively approaching this construct will enable accessing work experiences, confirming or refuting the hypotheses raised here.

As a perception, volition is a malleable attitudinal variable, and therefore, may be relevant for vocational and career interventions (Duffy, Blustein, et al., 2016). From the perspective of public policies and career counselors, it is appropriate to contextualize degrees of work volition so that interventions also favor social justice (Hooley & Sultana, 2016), rather than strengthening cultural oppression or inadvertently ignoring inequalities in the world of work (Blustein, Kenna, Gill, & Devoy, 2008).

Given a volatile and uncertain job market context, most workers are likely to experience some degree of volitional restrictions (Blustein, 2019; Ribeiro, 2020). However, it is urgent to conduct studies that go beyond dominant groups in terms of socioeconomic class, education, race, or ethnicity (Blustein, 2001; Henrich, Heine, & Norenzayan, 2010; McMahon, Watson, & Lee, 2019; Prilleltensky & Stead, 2013; Richardson, 1993) to scientifically expose job market inequalities and the influence of social markers on the distribution of and access to resources, structures, and opportunities (Blustein, 2006).

We are all immersed in a competitive social environment, but why do some people obtain good outcomes and others do not? Why do the trajectories to attain career objectives differ? Why do some people need to overcome barriers and others do not face barriers along their paths? Questions may reverberate; after all, why are there differences among workers? (Maciel & Grillo, 2018). Orwell (2007, p. 103), in his dystopian classic Animal Farm, concluded: “all animals are equal, but some are more equal than others.”

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• ²
  Apoio para realização da pesquisa: Cnpq (Bolsa de produtividade para Alexsandro Luiz De Andrade) e FAPES (Edital Universal).

Annex A

Brazilian version of the Work Volition Scale (in Portuguese Escala de Volição no Trabalho - EVT)

Neste questionário não há respostas certas ou erradas, mas é importante marcar com sinceridade como você se sente com relação a cada uma das afirmativas. Para cada frase, por favor, marque o número para indicar seu grau de concordância.

1. Eu fui capaz de escolher os trabalhos que eu queria.

2. Eu consigo o tipo de trabalho que quero apesar de barreiras externas.

3. Eu sinto que controlo totalmente as minhas escolhas de trabalho.

4. Eu sinto que sou capaz de mudar de trabalho, se eu quiser.

5. Por causa da minha situação financeira eu preciso aceitar qualquer trabalho que conseguir encontrar.

6. Ao procurar trabalho, aceitarei qualquer um que conseguir.

7. Para sustentar minha família, muitas vezes eu tenho que aceitar trabalhos que não gosto.

8. Eu não gosto do meu trabalho, mas para mim seria impossível encontrar outro.

9. A única coisa que importa na escolha de um trabalho é pagar as contas.

10. Eu sinto que forças externas limitaram muito minhas opções de trabalho e carreira.

11. A situação atual da economia me impede de trabalhar fazendo o que gosto.

12. Situações negativas fora do meu controle tiveram um grande impacto na minha escolha de carreira atual.

13. Os trabalhos que eu gostaria de buscar não existem na minha região

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  21 Mar 2022
• Date of issue
  Mar-Apr 2022

History

• Received
  04 Nov 2020
• Reviewed
  11 Apr 2021
• Accepted
  26 July 2021
• Published
  25 Feb 2022