Episodic memory, concentrated attention and processing speed in aging: A comparative study of Brazilian age groups

Fonseca, Rochele Paz; Zimmermann, Nicolle; Scherer, Lilian Cristine; Parente, Maria Alice de Mattos Pimenta; Ska, Bernadette

doi:10.1590/S1980-57642010DN40200003

Abstract

Neuropsychological studies on the processing of some specific cognitive functions throughout aging are essential for the understanding of human cognitive development from ages 19 to 89.

Objectives:

This study aimed to verify the occurrence of differences in the processing of episodic memory, concentrated attention and speed of attentional processing among four age groups of adults.

Methods:

A total of 136 neurologically healthy adults, aged 19-89, with 9 or more years of schooling, took part in the study. Participants were divided according to four age groups: young, middle-aged, elderly and oldest old adults. Subtests of the Brief Neuropsychological Evaluation Instrument (NEUPSILIN) were applied for the cognitive assessment. Mean score of corrected answers and of response times were compared between groups by means of a one-way ANOVA test with post-hoc Scheffe procedures and ANCOVA including the co-variables of years of schooling and socio-economical scores.

Results:

In general, differences in performance were observed from 60 years old on. Only the episodic memory task of delayed recall reflected differences from the age of around 40 onwards and processing speed from around the age of 70 onwards. Thus, differences were found between the age groups regarding their cognitive performance, particularly between young adults and elderly adults, and young adults and oldest old adults.

Conclusions:

Our research indicates that the middle-aged group should be better analyzed and that comparative cross-sectional studies including only extreme groups such as young and elderly adults are not sufficient.

Key words:
neuropsychological tests; aging; age effect; memory; attention.

Resumo

Os estudos neuropsicológicos sobre o processamento de algumas funções cognitivas específicas no envelhecimento são essenciais para a compreensão do desenvolvimento humano na idade de 19 a 89 anos.

Objetivos:

Esse estudo teve como objetivo verificar a ocorrência de diferenças no processamento da memória episódica, atenção concentrada e velocidade de processamento entre quatro grupos etários.

Métodos:

Participaram desse estudo 136 adultos neurologicamente saudáveis de 19 a 89 anos, com 9 anos ou mais de escolaridade, divididos em quatro grupos etários: jovens, de idade intermediária, idosos e longevos. Subtestes do Instrumento de Avaliação Neuropsicológica Breve - NEUPSILIN foram utilizados para a avaliação cognitiva. A média dos escores e o tempo de resposta foram comparados entre os grupos através do teste one-way ANOVA, com o procedimento post-hoc Scheffe e uma ANCOVA com as co-variáveis anos de escolaridade e escore sócio-econômico.

Resultados:

De maneira geral, foram encontradas diferenças entre os grupos a partir dos 60 anos. Somente na tarefa de memória episódica tardia foram encontradas diferenças aproximadamente a partir dos 40 anos, e na velocidade de processamento, a partir dos 70 anos de idade. Dessa forma, houve diferenças entre os grupos no seu desempenho cognitivo, principalmente entre o grupo de adultos jovens e adultos idosos e adultos jovens e adultos longevos.

Conclusões:

Os resultados demonstraram, ainda, que o grupo de adultos de idade intermediária deve ser mais bem investigado e, a partir disso, que estudos comparativos incluindo grupos de faixas etárias extremas não são suficientes.

Palavras-chave:
testes neuropsicológicos; envelhecimento; grupos etários; memória; atenção.

Texto completo disponível apenas em PDF.

Full text available only in PDF format.

References

¹
De Magalhães JP, Sandberg A. Cognitive aging as an extension of brain development: a model linking learning, brain plasticity, and regeneration. Mech Ageing Dev 2005;126:1026-1033.
²
Salthouse TA. Does the meaning of neurocognitive change change with age? Neuropsychology 2010;24:273-278.
³
Cabeza R. Cognitive neuroscience of aging: contributions of functional neuroimaging. Scand J Psychol 2001;42:277-286.
⁴
Ska B, Joanette Y. Vieillissement normal et cognition. Medecine Sciences 2006;22:284-287.
⁵
Taconnat L, Clarys D, Vanneste S, Bouazzaoui B, Isingrini M. Aging and strategic retrieval in a cued-recall test: the role of executive functions and fluid intelligence. Brain Cogn 2007; 64:1-6.
⁶
Sternäng O, Wahlin A, Nilsson L. Examination of the processing speed account in a population-based longitudinal study with narrow age cohort design. Scand J Psychol 2008;49:419-428.
⁷
Verhaeghen P, Cerella J. Aging, executive control, and attention: a review of meta-analyses. Neurosc Biobehav Rev 2002; 26:849-857.
⁸
Yun RJ, Lachman ME. Perceptions of aging in two cultures: Korean and American views on old age. J Cross Cult Gerontol 2006;21:55-70.
⁹
Agranovich AV, Puente AE. Do Russian and American normal adults perform similarly on neuropsychological tests? Preliminary findings on the relationship between culture and test performance. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2007;22:273-282.
¹⁰
Ardila A. Cultural values underlying psychometric cognitive testing. Neuropsychol Rev 2005;15:185-195.
¹¹
Baird AD, Ford M, Podell K. Ethnic differences in functional and neuropsychological test performance in older adults. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2007;22:309-318.
¹²
Manly JJ, Echemendia RJ. Race-specific norms: using the model of hypertension to understand issues of race, culture, and education in neuropsychology. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2007;22:319-325.
¹³
Parente MAMP, Fonseca RP. Substratos neurais da linguagem e seus fatores biológicos e sociais. In: Landeira-Fernandez, J, Araujo Silva, MTA, Editors. Intersecções entre psicologia e neurociências. Medbook; 2007:189-215.
¹⁴
Parente MAMP, Fonseca RP, Scherer LC. Literacy as a determining factor for brain organization: from Lecours' contribution to the present day. Dement Neuropsychol 2008;2:165-172.
¹⁵
Cansino S. Episodic memory decay along the adult lifespan: a review of behavioral and neurophysiological evidence. Int J Psychophysiol 2009;71:64-69.
¹⁶
Rajah MN, McIntosh AR. Age-related differences in brain activity during verbal recency memory. Brain Res 2008;1199: 111-125.
¹⁷
Squire LR. Memory and brain. Oxford University Press 1987.
¹⁸
Tulving E. Episodic memory: from mind to brain. Annu Rev Psychol 2002;53:1-25.
¹⁹
Bernard FA, Desgranges B, Eustache F, Baron J. Neural correlates of age-related verbal episodic memory decline: a PET study with combined subtraction/correlation analysis. Neurobiol Aging 2007;28:1568-1576.
²⁰
Dennis NA, Cabeza R. Neuroimaging of healthy cognitive aging. In: Craik FIM, Salthouse, TA, Editors. The Handbook of aging and cognition. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates 2008;1-54.
²¹
Lövdén, M. The episodic memory and inhibition accounts of age-related increases in false memories: a consistency check. J Mem Lang 2003;49:2268-283.
²²
Caserta MT, Bannon Y, Fernandez F, Giunta B, Schoenberg MR, Tan J. Normal brain aging clinical, immunological, neuropsychological, and neuroimaging features. Int Rev Neurobiol 2009;84:1-19.
²³
Bherer L, Kramer AF, Peterson MS, Colcombe S, Erickson K, Becic E. Testing the limits of cognitive plasticity in older adults: application to attentional control. Acta Psychol 2006; 12:261-278.
²⁴
Bucur B, Madden DJ, Spaniol J, et al. Age-related slowing of memory retrieval: contributions of perceptual speed and cerebral white matter integrity. Neurobiol Aging 2008;29:1070-1079.
²⁵
Van der Veen FM, Evers EAT, van Deursen JA, Deutz NEP, Backes WH, Schmitt JAJ. Acute tryptophan depletion reduces activation in the right hippocampus during encoding in an episodic memory task. Neuroimage 2006;3:1188-1196.
²⁶
Jin H, Folsom JH, Lindamer L, et al. Patterns of public mental health service use by age in patients with schizophrenia. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2003;11:525-533.
²⁷
Plumet J, Gil R, Gaonac'h D. Neuropsychological assessment of executive functions in women: effects of age and education. Neuropsychol 2005;19:566-577.
²⁸
Ostrosky-Solis F, Gomez-Perez E, Matute E, Rosselli M, Ardila A, Pineda D. NEUROPSI attention and memory: a neuropsychological test battery in Spanish with norms by age and educational level. Appl Neuropsychol 2007;14:156-170.
²⁹
Radanovic M, Mansur L. Performance of Brazilian population sample in the Boston diagnostic aphasia examination: a pilot study. Braz J Med Biol Res 2002;35:305-317.
³⁰
Amaral RA, Malbergier A. Avaliação do instrumento de detecção de problemas relacionados ao uso do álcool (CAGE) entre trabalhadores da Prefeitura do Campus da Universidade de São Paulo (USP) - Campus Capital. Rev Bras Psiq 2004; 26:156-163.
³¹
Marques ACPR, Campana A, Gigliotti AP, Lourenço MTC, Ferreira MP, Laranjeira, R. Consensus on the treatment of nicotine dependence. Rev Bras Psiq 2001;23:200-214.
³²
Pawlowski J, Fonseca RP, Salles JF, Parente MAMP, Bandeira DR. Evidências de validade do instrumento de avaliação neuropsicológica breve Neupsilin. Arq Bras Psicol 2008;60:101-116.
³³
Yesavage J. The Use of self-rating scales for depression in the elderly. In: Poon L. Handbook for clinical memory assessment of older adults. American Psychological Association 1986;246-368.
³⁴
Chaves ML, Izquierdo I. Differential diagnosis between dementia and depression: a study of efficiency increment. Acta Neurol Scand 1992;85:378-382.
³⁵
Fonseca RP, Salles JF, Parente MAMP. Instrumento de avaliação neuropsicológica breve NEUPSILIN. Vetor Editora; 2009.
³⁶
Fonseca R, Salles JF, Parente MAMP. Development and content validity of the brazilian brief neuropsychological assessment battery Neupsilin. Psychol Neurosci 2008;1:55-62.
³⁷
Andrés P, Parmentier FBR, Escera C. The effect of age on involuntary capture of attention by irrelevant sounds: a test of the frontal hypotesis of aging. Neuropsychologia 2006;44: 2564-2568.
³⁸
Perrotin A, Isingrini M, Souchay C, Clarys D, Taconnat L. Episodic feeling-of-knowledge accuracy and cued recall in the elderly: evidence for double dissociation involving executive functioning and processing speed. Acta Psychol 2006;122:58-73.
³⁹
Salthouse TA. The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition. Psychol Rev 1996;103:403-428.
⁴⁰
Sweeney JA, Rosano C, Berman RA, Luna B. Inhibitory control of attention declines more than working memory during normal aging. Neurobiol Aging 2001;22:39-47.
⁴¹
Bopp KL, Verhaeghen P. Aging and verbal memory span: a meta-analysis. J Gerontol Psychol Sci 2005;60:223-233.
⁴²
Chao LL, Knight RT. Prefrontal deficits in attention and inhibitory control with aging. Cereb Cortex 1997;7:63-69.
⁴³
Mani TM, Bedwell JS, Miller LS. Age-related decrements in performance on a continuous performance test. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2005;20:575-586.
⁴⁴
Gaeta H, Friedman D, Ritter W. Auditory selective attention in young and elderly adults: the selection of single versus conjoint features. Psychophisiology 2003;40:389-406.
⁴⁵
Kolodziejczyk I, Szelag E. Auditory perception of temporal order in centenarians in comparison with Young and elderly subjects. Acta Neurobiol Exp 2008;68:373-381.
⁴⁶
Wong PCM, Jin JX, Gunasekera GM, Abel R, Lee ER, Dhar S. Aging and cortical mechanisms of speech perception in noise. Neuropsychologia 2009;47:693-703.
⁴⁷
Mattay, VS, Fera F, Tessitore A, et al. Neurophysiological correlates of age-related changes in working memory capacity. Neurosci Lett 2006;392:32-37.
⁴⁸
Salthouse TA. When does age cognitive decline begin? Neurobiol Aging 2009;30:507-514.
⁴⁹
Pieperhoff P, Hömke L, Schneider F, et al. Deformation field morphometry reveals age-related structural differences between the brains of adults up to 51 years. J Neurosci 2008; 28:828-842.
⁵⁰
Balota DA, Dolan PO, Duchek, JM. Memory changes in healthy older adults. In: Tulving E, Craik FIM, Editors. The Oxford handbook of memory. Oxford University Press 2000; 395-409.
⁵¹
Vanderaspoilden V, Adam S, Van der Linden M, Morais J. Controlled processes account for age-related decrease in episodic memory. Acta Psychol 2007;125:20-36.
⁵²
Malloy-Diniz LF, Lasmar VAP, Gazinelli LSR, Fuentes D, Salgado JV. The Rey Auditory-Verbal Learning Test: applicability for the Brazilian elderly population. Rev Bras Psiq 2007;29:324-329.
⁵³
Ardila A. Normal aging increases cognitive heterogeneity: analysis of dispersion in WAIS-III scores across age. Arch Clin Neurpsychol 2007;22:1003-1011.
⁵⁴
Willis SL, Baron JB. Midlife cognition: the association of personality with cognition and risk of cognitive impairment. In: Hofer SM, Alwin DF. Handbook of cognitive aging: Interdisciplinary perspectives. Sage 2008;647-661.
⁵⁵
Schaie KW, Willis SL, Caskie GIL. The Seattle Longitudinal Study: Relationship between personality and cognition. Neuropsychol Dev Cogn B Aging Neuropsychol Cogn. 2004; 11:304-324.
⁵⁶
Parente MAMP. Questões metodológicas no estudo sobre o envelhecimento. In: Parente MAMP, Editor. Cognição e envelhecimento. ArtMed; 2006;1:287-300.
⁵⁷
Schaie KW. Historical processes and patterns of cognitive aging. In: Hofer SM, Alwin DF, Editors. Handbook on cognitive aging. Sage; 2008;368-383.
⁵⁸
Schaie KW. "When does age-related cognitive decline begin?" Salthouse again reifies the "cross-sectional fallacy". Neurobiol Aging 2009;30:528-529; discussion 530-33.

Publication Dates

Publication in this collection
Apr-Jun 2010

History

Received
30 Dec 2009
Accepted
19 Apr 2010

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License

[1] ¹
De Magalhães JP, Sandberg A. Cognitive aging as an extension of brain development: a model linking learning, brain plasticity, and regeneration. Mech Ageing Dev 2005;126:1026-1033.

[2] ²
Salthouse TA. Does the meaning of neurocognitive change change with age? Neuropsychology 2010;24:273-278.

[3] ³
Cabeza R. Cognitive neuroscience of aging: contributions of functional neuroimaging. Scand J Psychol 2001;42:277-286.

[4] ⁴
Ska B, Joanette Y. Vieillissement normal et cognition. Medecine Sciences 2006;22:284-287.

[5] ⁵
Taconnat L, Clarys D, Vanneste S, Bouazzaoui B, Isingrini M. Aging and strategic retrieval in a cued-recall test: the role of executive functions and fluid intelligence. Brain Cogn 2007; 64:1-6.

[6] ⁶
Sternäng O, Wahlin A, Nilsson L. Examination of the processing speed account in a population-based longitudinal study with narrow age cohort design. Scand J Psychol 2008;49:419-428.

[7] ⁷
Verhaeghen P, Cerella J. Aging, executive control, and attention: a review of meta-analyses. Neurosc Biobehav Rev 2002; 26:849-857.

[8] ⁸
Yun RJ, Lachman ME. Perceptions of aging in two cultures: Korean and American views on old age. J Cross Cult Gerontol 2006;21:55-70.

[9] ⁹
Agranovich AV, Puente AE. Do Russian and American normal adults perform similarly on neuropsychological tests? Preliminary findings on the relationship between culture and test performance. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2007;22:273-282.

[10] ¹⁰
Ardila A. Cultural values underlying psychometric cognitive testing. Neuropsychol Rev 2005;15:185-195.

[11] ¹¹
Baird AD, Ford M, Podell K. Ethnic differences in functional and neuropsychological test performance in older adults. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2007;22:309-318.

[12] ¹²
Manly JJ, Echemendia RJ. Race-specific norms: using the model of hypertension to understand issues of race, culture, and education in neuropsychology. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2007;22:319-325.

[13] ¹³
Parente MAMP, Fonseca RP. Substratos neurais da linguagem e seus fatores biológicos e sociais. In: Landeira-Fernandez, J, Araujo Silva, MTA, Editors. Intersecções entre psicologia e neurociências. Medbook; 2007:189-215.

[14] ¹⁴
Parente MAMP, Fonseca RP, Scherer LC. Literacy as a determining factor for brain organization: from Lecours' contribution to the present day. Dement Neuropsychol 2008;2:165-172.

[15] ¹⁵
Cansino S. Episodic memory decay along the adult lifespan: a review of behavioral and neurophysiological evidence. Int J Psychophysiol 2009;71:64-69.

[16] ¹⁶
Rajah MN, McIntosh AR. Age-related differences in brain activity during verbal recency memory. Brain Res 2008;1199: 111-125.

[17] ¹⁷
Squire LR. Memory and brain. Oxford University Press 1987.

[18] ¹⁸
Tulving E. Episodic memory: from mind to brain. Annu Rev Psychol 2002;53:1-25.

[19] ¹⁹
Bernard FA, Desgranges B, Eustache F, Baron J. Neural correlates of age-related verbal episodic memory decline: a PET study with combined subtraction/correlation analysis. Neurobiol Aging 2007;28:1568-1576.

[20] ²⁰
Dennis NA, Cabeza R. Neuroimaging of healthy cognitive aging. In: Craik FIM, Salthouse, TA, Editors. The Handbook of aging and cognition. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates 2008;1-54.

[21] ²¹
Lövdén, M. The episodic memory and inhibition accounts of age-related increases in false memories: a consistency check. J Mem Lang 2003;49:2268-283.

[22] ²²
Caserta MT, Bannon Y, Fernandez F, Giunta B, Schoenberg MR, Tan J. Normal brain aging clinical, immunological, neuropsychological, and neuroimaging features. Int Rev Neurobiol 2009;84:1-19.

[23] ²³
Bherer L, Kramer AF, Peterson MS, Colcombe S, Erickson K, Becic E. Testing the limits of cognitive plasticity in older adults: application to attentional control. Acta Psychol 2006; 12:261-278.

[24] ²⁴
Bucur B, Madden DJ, Spaniol J, et al. Age-related slowing of memory retrieval: contributions of perceptual speed and cerebral white matter integrity. Neurobiol Aging 2008;29:1070-1079.

[25] ²⁵
Van der Veen FM, Evers EAT, van Deursen JA, Deutz NEP, Backes WH, Schmitt JAJ. Acute tryptophan depletion reduces activation in the right hippocampus during encoding in an episodic memory task. Neuroimage 2006;3:1188-1196.

[26] ²⁶
Jin H, Folsom JH, Lindamer L, et al. Patterns of public mental health service use by age in patients with schizophrenia. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2003;11:525-533.

[27] ²⁷
Plumet J, Gil R, Gaonac'h D. Neuropsychological assessment of executive functions in women: effects of age and education. Neuropsychol 2005;19:566-577.

[28] ²⁸
Ostrosky-Solis F, Gomez-Perez E, Matute E, Rosselli M, Ardila A, Pineda D. NEUROPSI attention and memory: a neuropsychological test battery in Spanish with norms by age and educational level. Appl Neuropsychol 2007;14:156-170.

[29] ²⁹
Radanovic M, Mansur L. Performance of Brazilian population sample in the Boston diagnostic aphasia examination: a pilot study. Braz J Med Biol Res 2002;35:305-317.

[30] ³⁰
Amaral RA, Malbergier A. Avaliação do instrumento de detecção de problemas relacionados ao uso do álcool (CAGE) entre trabalhadores da Prefeitura do Campus da Universidade de São Paulo (USP) - Campus Capital. Rev Bras Psiq 2004; 26:156-163.

[31] ³¹
Marques ACPR, Campana A, Gigliotti AP, Lourenço MTC, Ferreira MP, Laranjeira, R. Consensus on the treatment of nicotine dependence. Rev Bras Psiq 2001;23:200-214.

[32] ³²
Pawlowski J, Fonseca RP, Salles JF, Parente MAMP, Bandeira DR. Evidências de validade do instrumento de avaliação neuropsicológica breve Neupsilin. Arq Bras Psicol 2008;60:101-116.

[33] ³³
Yesavage J. The Use of self-rating scales for depression in the elderly. In: Poon L. Handbook for clinical memory assessment of older adults. American Psychological Association 1986;246-368.

[34] ³⁴
Chaves ML, Izquierdo I. Differential diagnosis between dementia and depression: a study of efficiency increment. Acta Neurol Scand 1992;85:378-382.

[35] ³⁵
Fonseca RP, Salles JF, Parente MAMP. Instrumento de avaliação neuropsicológica breve NEUPSILIN. Vetor Editora; 2009.

[36] ³⁶
Fonseca R, Salles JF, Parente MAMP. Development and content validity of the brazilian brief neuropsychological assessment battery Neupsilin. Psychol Neurosci 2008;1:55-62.

[37] ³⁷
Andrés P, Parmentier FBR, Escera C. The effect of age on involuntary capture of attention by irrelevant sounds: a test of the frontal hypotesis of aging. Neuropsychologia 2006;44: 2564-2568.

[38] ³⁸
Perrotin A, Isingrini M, Souchay C, Clarys D, Taconnat L. Episodic feeling-of-knowledge accuracy and cued recall in the elderly: evidence for double dissociation involving executive functioning and processing speed. Acta Psychol 2006;122:58-73.

[39] ³⁹
Salthouse TA. The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition. Psychol Rev 1996;103:403-428.

[40] ⁴⁰
Sweeney JA, Rosano C, Berman RA, Luna B. Inhibitory control of attention declines more than working memory during normal aging. Neurobiol Aging 2001;22:39-47.

[41] ⁴¹
Bopp KL, Verhaeghen P. Aging and verbal memory span: a meta-analysis. J Gerontol Psychol Sci 2005;60:223-233.

[42] ⁴²
Chao LL, Knight RT. Prefrontal deficits in attention and inhibitory control with aging. Cereb Cortex 1997;7:63-69.

[43] ⁴³
Mani TM, Bedwell JS, Miller LS. Age-related decrements in performance on a continuous performance test. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2005;20:575-586.

[44] ⁴⁴
Gaeta H, Friedman D, Ritter W. Auditory selective attention in young and elderly adults: the selection of single versus conjoint features. Psychophisiology 2003;40:389-406.

[45] ⁴⁵
Kolodziejczyk I, Szelag E. Auditory perception of temporal order in centenarians in comparison with Young and elderly subjects. Acta Neurobiol Exp 2008;68:373-381.

[46] ⁴⁶
Wong PCM, Jin JX, Gunasekera GM, Abel R, Lee ER, Dhar S. Aging and cortical mechanisms of speech perception in noise. Neuropsychologia 2009;47:693-703.

[47] ⁴⁷
Mattay, VS, Fera F, Tessitore A, et al. Neurophysiological correlates of age-related changes in working memory capacity. Neurosci Lett 2006;392:32-37.

[48] ⁴⁸
Salthouse TA. When does age cognitive decline begin? Neurobiol Aging 2009;30:507-514.

[49] ⁴⁹
Pieperhoff P, Hömke L, Schneider F, et al. Deformation field morphometry reveals age-related structural differences between the brains of adults up to 51 years. J Neurosci 2008; 28:828-842.

[50] ⁵⁰
Balota DA, Dolan PO, Duchek, JM. Memory changes in healthy older adults. In: Tulving E, Craik FIM, Editors. The Oxford handbook of memory. Oxford University Press 2000; 395-409.

[51] ⁵¹
Vanderaspoilden V, Adam S, Van der Linden M, Morais J. Controlled processes account for age-related decrease in episodic memory. Acta Psychol 2007;125:20-36.

[52] ⁵²
Malloy-Diniz LF, Lasmar VAP, Gazinelli LSR, Fuentes D, Salgado JV. The Rey Auditory-Verbal Learning Test: applicability for the Brazilian elderly population. Rev Bras Psiq 2007;29:324-329.

[53] ⁵³
Ardila A. Normal aging increases cognitive heterogeneity: analysis of dispersion in WAIS-III scores across age. Arch Clin Neurpsychol 2007;22:1003-1011.

[54] ⁵⁴
Willis SL, Baron JB. Midlife cognition: the association of personality with cognition and risk of cognitive impairment. In: Hofer SM, Alwin DF. Handbook of cognitive aging: Interdisciplinary perspectives. Sage 2008;647-661.

[55] ⁵⁵
Schaie KW, Willis SL, Caskie GIL. The Seattle Longitudinal Study: Relationship between personality and cognition. Neuropsychol Dev Cogn B Aging Neuropsychol Cogn. 2004; 11:304-324.

[56] ⁵⁶
Parente MAMP. Questões metodológicas no estudo sobre o envelhecimento. In: Parente MAMP, Editor. Cognição e envelhecimento. ArtMed; 2006;1:287-300.

[57] ⁵⁷
Schaie KW. Historical processes and patterns of cognitive aging. In: Hofer SM, Alwin DF, Editors. Handbook on cognitive aging. Sage; 2008;368-383.

[58] ⁵⁸
Schaie KW. "When does age-related cognitive decline begin?" Salthouse again reifies the "cross-sectional fallacy". Neurobiol Aging 2009;30:528-529; discussion 530-33.

Brasil