Musical training, neuroplasticity and cognition

Rodrigues, Ana Carolina; Loureiro, Maurício Alves; Caramelli, Paulo

doi:10.1590/S1980-57642010DN40400005

Abstract

The influence of music on the human brain has been recently investigated in numerous studies. Several investigations have shown that structural and functional cerebral neuroplastic processes emerge as a result of long-term musical training, which in turn may produce cognitive differences between musicians and non-musicians. Musicians can be considered ideal cases for studies on brain adaptation, due to their unique and intensive training experiences. This article presents a review of recent findings showing positive effects of musical training on non-musical cognitive abilities, which probably reflect plastic changes in brains of musicians.

Key words:
musical training; neuroplasticity; cognitive abilities

Resumo

A influência da música no cérebro humano tem sido alvo de vários estudos nos últimos anos. Muitos trabalhos têm demonstrado que processos neuroplásticos estruturais e funcionais surgem no cérebro como resultado de treinamento musical prolongado, os quais podem produzir diferenças cognitivas entre músicos e não-músicos. Os músicos podem ser considerados como casos ideais para investigações relacionadas à adaptação cerebral, devido às suas experiências únicas e intensivas de treinamento. Este artigo apresenta uma revisão das recentes descobertas que mostram efeitos positivos do treinamento musical em capacidades cognitivas não-musicais, o que poderia refletir a ocorrência de alterações plásticas nos cérebros de músicos.

Palavras-chave:
treinamento musical; neuroplasticidade; capacidades cognitivas

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Full text available only in PDF format.

References

Peretz I. The nature of music from a biological perspective. Cognition 2006;100:1-32.
Baeck E. The neural networks of music. Eur J Neurol 2002;9: 449-456.
Elbert T, Pantev C, Wiendbruch C, Rockstroh B, Taub B. Increased cortical representation of the fingers of the left hand in string players. Science 1995;270:305-307.
Schlaug G, Jäncke L, Huang Y, Staiger J, Steinmetz H. Increased corpus callosum size in musicians. Neuropsychologia 1995;33:1047-1055.
Amunts K, Schlaug G, Jäncke L, et al. Motor cortex and hand motor skills: structural compliance in the human brain. Hum Brain Mapp 1997;5:206-215.
Pantev C, Oostenveld R, Engelien A, Ross B, Roberts L, Hoke M. Increased auditory cortical representation in musicians. Nature 1998;392:811-813.
Schlaug G, Lee L, Thangaraj V, et al. Macrostructural adaptation of the cerebellum in musicians. Soc Neurosci 1998;24: 842-847.
Koelsch S, Schroger E, Tervaniemi M. Superior pre-attentive auditory processing in musicians. NeuroReport 1999;10:1309-1313.
Rüsseler J, Altenmüller E, Nager W, Kohlmetz C, Münte T. Event-related brain potentials to sound omissions differ in musicians and non-musicians. Neurosci Lett 2001;308:33-36.
Gaser C, Schlaug G. Brain structures differ between musicians and non-musicians. J Neurosci 2003;23:9240-9245.
Bengtsson S, Nagy Z, Skare S, Forsman L, Forssberg H, Ullén F. Extensive piano practicing has regionally specific effects on white matter development. Nat Neurosci 2005;8:1148-1150.
Musacchia G, Sams M, Skoe E, Kraus N. Musicians have enhanced subcortical auditory and audiovisual processing of speech and music. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007;104: 15894-15898.
Han Y, Yang H, Lv YT, et al. Gray matter density and white matter integrity in pianists' brain:a combined structural and diffusion tensor MRI study. Neurosci Lett 2009;459:3-6.
Herdener M, Esposito F, di Salle F, et al. Musical training induces functional plasticity in human hippocampus. J Neurosci 2010;30:1377-1384.
Münte T, Altenmüller E, Jäncke L. The musician's brain as a model of neuroplasticity. Nat Rev Neurosci 2002;3:473-478.
Rauscher F, Shaw G, Levine L, Wright E, Dennis W, Newcomb R. Music training causes long-term enhancement of preschool children's spatial-temporal reasoning. Neurol Res 1997;19:2-8.
Standley J, Hughes J. Evaluation of an early intervention music curriculum for enhancing prereading/writing skills. Music Ther Perspect 1997;15:79-85.
Costa-Giomi E. The effects of three years of piano instruction on children's cognitive development. J Res Music Educ 1999;47:198-212.
Graziano A, Peterson M, Shaw G. Enhanced learning of proportional math through music training and spatial-temporal reasoning. Neurol Res 1999;21:139-152.
Bilhartz T, Bruhn R, Olson J. The effect of early music training on child cognitive development. J Applied Dev Psychol 1999;20:615-636.
Hetland L. Learning to make music enhances spatial reasoning. J Aesthetic Educ 2000;34:179-238.
Rauscher F, Zupan M. Classroom keyboard instruction improves kindergarten children's spatial-temporal performance: a field experiment. Early Childhood Res Q 2000;15:215-228.
Anvari S, Trainor L, Woodside J, Levy B. Relations among musical skills, phonological processing and early reading ability in preschool children. J Exp Child Psychol 2002;83:111-130.
Ho Y, Cheung M, Chan A. Music training improves verbal but not visual memory: cross sectional and longitudinal explorations in children. Neuropsychology 2003;17:439-450.
Vaughn K. Music and mathematics: modest support for the oft-claimed relationship. J Aesthetic Educ 2000;34:149-166.
Gromko J. The effect of music instruction on phonemic awareness in beginning readers. J Res Music Educ 2005;53: 199-209.
Forgeard M, Winner E, Norton A, Schlaug G. Practicing a musical instrument in childhood is associated with enhanced verbal ability and nonverbal reasoning. PLoS One 2008;3:1-8.
Piro J, Ortiz C. The effect of piano lessons on the vocabulary and verbal sequencing skills of primary grade students. Psychol Music 2009;37:1-23.
Kopiez R, Galley N. The musicians' glance: a pilot study comparing eye movement parameters in musicians and non-musicians. In: Stevens C, Burnham D, McPherson G, Schubert E, Renwick J, editors. ICMPC7. Proceedings of the 7^th International Conference on Music Perception and Cognition; 2002 Jul 17-21;Sidney, Australia. Adelaide: Causal Productions; 2002:683-686.
Brandler S, Rammsayer T. Differences in mental abilities between musicians and non-musicians. Psychol Music 2003;31:123-138.
Brochard R, Dufour A, Després O. Effect of musical expertise on visuospatial abilities: evidence from reaction times and mental imagery. Brain Cogn 2004;54:103-109.
Gruhn W, Litt F, Scherer A, Schumann T, Weib E, Gebhardt C. Suppressing reflexive behaviour: saccadic eye movements in musicians and non-musicians. Musicae Scientiae 2006;10: 19-32.
Rodrigues A, Guerra L, Loureiro M. Visual attention in musicians and non-musicians: a comparative study. CIM07. Proceedings of the 3^rd International Conference on Interdisciplinary Musicology; 2007 Aug 15-19;Tallinn, Estonia. Available from: URL:http://www-gewi.uni-graz.at/cim07/index2.htm
» http://www-gewi.uni-graz.at/cim07/index2.htm
Patston L, Corballis M, Hogg S, Tippett L. The neglect of musicians. Line bisection reveals an opposite bias. Psychol Sci 2006;17:1029-1031.
Patston L, Hogg S, Tippett L. Attention in musicians is more bilateral than in non-musicians. Laterality 2007;12:262-272.
Patston L, Kirk I, Rolfe M, Corballis M, Tippett L. The unusual symmetry of musicians: musicians have equilateral interhemispheric transfer for visual information. Neuropsychologia 2007;45:2059-2065.
Stoesz B, Jakobson L, Kilgour A, Lewycky S. Local processing advantage in musicians: evidence from disembedding and constructional tasks. Music Percept 2007;25:153-165.
Franklin M, Moore K, Yip CY, Jonides J, Rattray K, Moher J. The effects of musical training on verbal memory. Psychol Music 2008;36:353-365.
Jakobson L, Lewycky S, Kilgour A, Stoesz B. Memory for verbal and visual material in highly trained musicians. Music Percept 2008;26:41-55.
Chan AS, Ho YC, Cheung MC. Music training improves verbal memory. Nature 1998;396:128.
Kilgour AR, Jakobson LS, Cuddy LL. Music training and rate of presentation as mediator of text and song recall. Mem Cogn 2000;28:700-710.
Altenmüller EO. How many music centers are in the brain? In: Zatorre RJ, Peretz I, editors. The biological foundations of music. New York: The New York Academy of Sciences; 2001:273-280.
Currie J, Ramsden B, Mcarthur C, Maruff P. Validation of a clinical saccadic eye movement test in the assessment of dementia. Arch Neurol 1991;48:644-648.
Sereno AB, Holzman PS. Antisaccades and smooth pursuit eye movements in schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 1995;37: 394-401.
Kinsler V, Carpenter RHS. Saccadic eye movements while reading music. Vision Res 1995;35:1447-1458.
Biscaldi M, Fischer B, Hartnegg K. Voluntary saccadic control in dyslexia. Perception 2000;29:509-521.
Tatler B W, Wade N J. On nystagmus, saccades, and fixations. Perception 2003;32:167-184.
Kimmig H. Express-sakkaden beim menschen: die rolle der aufmerksamkeit in der vorbereitungsphase zielgerichteter blicksprünge [dissertation]. Freiburg: Universität Freiburg; 1986.
Biodata. Multipsy 821: user manual. Frankfurt: Biodata; 1988.
Hausmann M, Ergun G, Yazgan Y, Güntürkün O. Sex differences in line bisection as a function of hand. Neuropsychologia 2002;40:235-240.
Oliveri M, Rausei V, Koch G, Torriero S, Turriziani P, Caltagirone C. Overestimation of numerical distances in the left side of space. Neurology 2004;63:2139-2141.
Witkin HA, Oltman PK, Raskin E, Karp SA. A Manual for the Embedded Figures Tests. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press; 1971.
Wechsler D. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale - Third Edition: administration and scoring manual. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation; 1997.
Rey A. L'examen clinique en psychologie. Paris: Presse Universitaire de France; 1964.
Flaherty M. The validity of tests of visuo-spatial skills in cross-cultural studies. Irish J Psychol 1997;18:404-412.
Flaherty M. Memory in the deaf: A cross cultural study in English and Japanese. Am Ann Deaf 2000;145:237-244.
Maguire EA, Cipolotti L. Selective sparing of topographical memory. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1998;65:903-909.
Mecklinger A. On the modularity of recognition memory for object form and spatial location: a topographic ERP analysis. Neuropsychologia 1998;36:441- 460.
Platel H, Price C, Baron J C, et al. The structural components of music perception:a functional anatomic study. Brain 1997; 120:229-243.
Schmithorst VJ, Holland SK. The effect of musical training on music processing: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study in humans. Neurosci Lett 2003;348, 65-68.
Sluming V, Barrick T, Howard M, Cezayirli E, Mayes A, Roberts N. Voxel-based morphometry reveals increased gray matter density in Broca's area in male symphony orchestra musicians. NeuroImage 2002;17:1613-1622.
Sluming V, Brooks J, Howard M, Downes JJ, Roberts N. Broca's area supports enhanced visuospatial cognition in orchestral musicians. J Neurosci 2007;27:3799-3806.
Chan AS, Kwok I. Hong Kong List Learning Test. Hong Kong, China: The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Department of Psychology; 1999.
Schlaug G, Jäncke L, Huang Y, Steinmetz H. In vivo evidence of structural brain asymmetry in musicians. Science 1995; 267:699-701.
Delis DC, Kaplan E, Kramer J, Ober BA. California Verbal Learning Test - Second Edition. USA: Psychological Corporation; 2000.
Patel AD. Language, music, syntax, and the brain. Nat Neurosci 2003;6:674-681.
Schmidt M. Rey Auditory and Verbal Learning Test:a handbook. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services; 1996.
Ohnishi T, Matsuda H, Asada T, et al. Functional anatomy of musical perception in musicians. Cereb Cortex 2001;11: 754-760.
Bever TG, Chiarello RJ. Cerebral dominance in musicians and non-musicians. Science 1974;185:537-539.
Hirshkowitz M, Earle J, Paley B. EEG alpha asymmetry in musicians and non-musicians :a study of hemispheric specialization. Neuropsychologia 1978;16:125-128.
Besson M, Faita F, Requin J. Brain waves associated with musical incongruities differ for musicians and non-musicians. Neurosci Lett 1994;168:101-105.
Fujioka T, Ross B, Kakigi R, Pantev C, Trainor L. One year of musical training affects development of auditory cortical-evoked fields in young children. Brain 2006;129:2593-2598.
Schellenberg EG, Peretz I. Music, language and cognition: unresolved issues. Trends Cogn Sci 2007;12:45-46.
Norton A, Winner E, Cronin K, Overy K, Lee DJ, Schlaug G. Are there pre-existing neural, cognitive, or motoric markers for musical ability? Brain Cogn 2005;59:124-134.
Hyde K, Lerch J, Norton A, et al. Musical training shapes structural brain development. J Neurosci 2009;29:3019-3025.
Maguire EA, Gadian DG, Johnsrude IS, et al. Navigation-related structural change in the hippocampi of taxi drivers. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2000;97:4398-4403.
Draganski B, Gaser C, Busch V, Schuierer G, Bogdahn U, May A. Neuroplasticity: changes in gray matter induced by training. Nature 2004;22, 427:311-312.
Pascual-Leone A, Wassermann E M, Sadato N, Hallett M. The role of reading activity on the modulation of motor cortical outputs to the reading hand in Braille readers. Ann Neurol 1995;38:910-915.
Karni A, Meyer G, Jezzard P, Adams MM, Turner R, Ungerleider LG. Functional MRI evidence for adult motor cortex plasticity during motor skill learning. Nature 1995;377:155-158.
Karni A, Meyer G, Rey-Hipolito C, et al. The acquisition of skilled motor performance: fast and slow experience-driven changes in primary motor cortex. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998;95:861-868.
Sims VK, Mayer RE. Domain specificity of spatial expertise: the case of video game players. Appl Cognitive Psych 2002; 16:97-115.
Carlson SM, Meltzoff AM. Bilingual experience and executive functioning in young children. Develop Science 2008;11:282-298.
Colzato L, Bajo MT, van den Wildenberg W, Paolieri D, Nieuwenhuis S, La Heij W. How does bilingualism improve executive control? A comparison of active and reactive inhibition mechanisms. J Exp Psychol Learn 2008;34:302-312.
Bialystok E, Craik FIM, Ryan J. Executive control in a modified antisaccade task: effects of aging and bilingualism. J Exp Psychol 2006;32:1341-1354.

Publication Dates

Publication in this collection
Oct-Dec 2010

History

Received
14 Aug 2010
Accepted
20 Oct 2010

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License

[1] Peretz I. The nature of music from a biological perspective. Cognition 2006;100:1-32.

[2] Baeck E. The neural networks of music. Eur J Neurol 2002;9: 449-456.

[3] Elbert T, Pantev C, Wiendbruch C, Rockstroh B, Taub B. Increased cortical representation of the fingers of the left hand in string players. Science 1995;270:305-307.

[4] Schlaug G, Jäncke L, Huang Y, Staiger J, Steinmetz H. Increased corpus callosum size in musicians. Neuropsychologia 1995;33:1047-1055.

[5] Amunts K, Schlaug G, Jäncke L, et al. Motor cortex and hand motor skills: structural compliance in the human brain. Hum Brain Mapp 1997;5:206-215.

[6] Pantev C, Oostenveld R, Engelien A, Ross B, Roberts L, Hoke M. Increased auditory cortical representation in musicians. Nature 1998;392:811-813.

[7] Schlaug G, Lee L, Thangaraj V, et al. Macrostructural adaptation of the cerebellum in musicians. Soc Neurosci 1998;24: 842-847.

[8] Koelsch S, Schroger E, Tervaniemi M. Superior pre-attentive auditory processing in musicians. NeuroReport 1999;10:1309-1313.

[9] Rüsseler J, Altenmüller E, Nager W, Kohlmetz C, Münte T. Event-related brain potentials to sound omissions differ in musicians and non-musicians. Neurosci Lett 2001;308:33-36.

[10] Gaser C, Schlaug G. Brain structures differ between musicians and non-musicians. J Neurosci 2003;23:9240-9245.

[11] Bengtsson S, Nagy Z, Skare S, Forsman L, Forssberg H, Ullén F. Extensive piano practicing has regionally specific effects on white matter development. Nat Neurosci 2005;8:1148-1150.

[12] Musacchia G, Sams M, Skoe E, Kraus N. Musicians have enhanced subcortical auditory and audiovisual processing of speech and music. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007;104: 15894-15898.

[13] Han Y, Yang H, Lv YT, et al. Gray matter density and white matter integrity in pianists' brain:a combined structural and diffusion tensor MRI study. Neurosci Lett 2009;459:3-6.

[14] Herdener M, Esposito F, di Salle F, et al. Musical training induces functional plasticity in human hippocampus. J Neurosci 2010;30:1377-1384.

[15] Münte T, Altenmüller E, Jäncke L. The musician's brain as a model of neuroplasticity. Nat Rev Neurosci 2002;3:473-478.

[16] Rauscher F, Shaw G, Levine L, Wright E, Dennis W, Newcomb R. Music training causes long-term enhancement of preschool children's spatial-temporal reasoning. Neurol Res 1997;19:2-8.

[17] Standley J, Hughes J. Evaluation of an early intervention music curriculum for enhancing prereading/writing skills. Music Ther Perspect 1997;15:79-85.

[18] Costa-Giomi E. The effects of three years of piano instruction on children's cognitive development. J Res Music Educ 1999;47:198-212.

[19] Graziano A, Peterson M, Shaw G. Enhanced learning of proportional math through music training and spatial-temporal reasoning. Neurol Res 1999;21:139-152.

[20] Bilhartz T, Bruhn R, Olson J. The effect of early music training on child cognitive development. J Applied Dev Psychol 1999;20:615-636.

[21] Hetland L. Learning to make music enhances spatial reasoning. J Aesthetic Educ 2000;34:179-238.

[22] Rauscher F, Zupan M. Classroom keyboard instruction improves kindergarten children's spatial-temporal performance: a field experiment. Early Childhood Res Q 2000;15:215-228.

[23] Anvari S, Trainor L, Woodside J, Levy B. Relations among musical skills, phonological processing and early reading ability in preschool children. J Exp Child Psychol 2002;83:111-130.

[24] Ho Y, Cheung M, Chan A. Music training improves verbal but not visual memory: cross sectional and longitudinal explorations in children. Neuropsychology 2003;17:439-450.

[25] Vaughn K. Music and mathematics: modest support for the oft-claimed relationship. J Aesthetic Educ 2000;34:149-166.

[26] Gromko J. The effect of music instruction on phonemic awareness in beginning readers. J Res Music Educ 2005;53: 199-209.

[27] Forgeard M, Winner E, Norton A, Schlaug G. Practicing a musical instrument in childhood is associated with enhanced verbal ability and nonverbal reasoning. PLoS One 2008;3:1-8.

[28] Piro J, Ortiz C. The effect of piano lessons on the vocabulary and verbal sequencing skills of primary grade students. Psychol Music 2009;37:1-23.

[29] Kopiez R, Galley N. The musicians' glance: a pilot study comparing eye movement parameters in musicians and non-musicians. In: Stevens C, Burnham D, McPherson G, Schubert E, Renwick J, editors. ICMPC7. Proceedings of the 7^th International Conference on Music Perception and Cognition; 2002 Jul 17-21;Sidney, Australia. Adelaide: Causal Productions; 2002:683-686.

[30] Brandler S, Rammsayer T. Differences in mental abilities between musicians and non-musicians. Psychol Music 2003;31:123-138.

[31] Brochard R, Dufour A, Després O. Effect of musical expertise on visuospatial abilities: evidence from reaction times and mental imagery. Brain Cogn 2004;54:103-109.

[32] Gruhn W, Litt F, Scherer A, Schumann T, Weib E, Gebhardt C. Suppressing reflexive behaviour: saccadic eye movements in musicians and non-musicians. Musicae Scientiae 2006;10: 19-32.

[33] Rodrigues A, Guerra L, Loureiro M. Visual attention in musicians and non-musicians: a comparative study. CIM07. Proceedings of the 3^rd International Conference on Interdisciplinary Musicology; 2007 Aug 15-19;Tallinn, Estonia. Available from: URL:http://www-gewi.uni-graz.at/cim07/index2.htm
» http://www-gewi.uni-graz.at/cim07/index2.htm

[34] Patston L, Corballis M, Hogg S, Tippett L. The neglect of musicians. Line bisection reveals an opposite bias. Psychol Sci 2006;17:1029-1031.

[35] Patston L, Hogg S, Tippett L. Attention in musicians is more bilateral than in non-musicians. Laterality 2007;12:262-272.

[36] Patston L, Kirk I, Rolfe M, Corballis M, Tippett L. The unusual symmetry of musicians: musicians have equilateral interhemispheric transfer for visual information. Neuropsychologia 2007;45:2059-2065.

[37] Stoesz B, Jakobson L, Kilgour A, Lewycky S. Local processing advantage in musicians: evidence from disembedding and constructional tasks. Music Percept 2007;25:153-165.

[38] Franklin M, Moore K, Yip CY, Jonides J, Rattray K, Moher J. The effects of musical training on verbal memory. Psychol Music 2008;36:353-365.

[39] Jakobson L, Lewycky S, Kilgour A, Stoesz B. Memory for verbal and visual material in highly trained musicians. Music Percept 2008;26:41-55.

[40] Chan AS, Ho YC, Cheung MC. Music training improves verbal memory. Nature 1998;396:128.

[41] Kilgour AR, Jakobson LS, Cuddy LL. Music training and rate of presentation as mediator of text and song recall. Mem Cogn 2000;28:700-710.

[42] Altenmüller EO. How many music centers are in the brain? In: Zatorre RJ, Peretz I, editors. The biological foundations of music. New York: The New York Academy of Sciences; 2001:273-280.

[43] Currie J, Ramsden B, Mcarthur C, Maruff P. Validation of a clinical saccadic eye movement test in the assessment of dementia. Arch Neurol 1991;48:644-648.

[44] Sereno AB, Holzman PS. Antisaccades and smooth pursuit eye movements in schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 1995;37: 394-401.

[45] Kinsler V, Carpenter RHS. Saccadic eye movements while reading music. Vision Res 1995;35:1447-1458.

[46] Biscaldi M, Fischer B, Hartnegg K. Voluntary saccadic control in dyslexia. Perception 2000;29:509-521.

[47] Tatler B W, Wade N J. On nystagmus, saccades, and fixations. Perception 2003;32:167-184.

[48] Kimmig H. Express-sakkaden beim menschen: die rolle der aufmerksamkeit in der vorbereitungsphase zielgerichteter blicksprünge [dissertation]. Freiburg: Universität Freiburg; 1986.

[49] Biodata. Multipsy 821: user manual. Frankfurt: Biodata; 1988.

[50] Hausmann M, Ergun G, Yazgan Y, Güntürkün O. Sex differences in line bisection as a function of hand. Neuropsychologia 2002;40:235-240.

[51] Oliveri M, Rausei V, Koch G, Torriero S, Turriziani P, Caltagirone C. Overestimation of numerical distances in the left side of space. Neurology 2004;63:2139-2141.

[52] Witkin HA, Oltman PK, Raskin E, Karp SA. A Manual for the Embedded Figures Tests. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press; 1971.

[53] Wechsler D. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale - Third Edition: administration and scoring manual. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation; 1997.

[54] Rey A. L'examen clinique en psychologie. Paris: Presse Universitaire de France; 1964.

[55] Flaherty M. The validity of tests of visuo-spatial skills in cross-cultural studies. Irish J Psychol 1997;18:404-412.

[56] Flaherty M. Memory in the deaf: A cross cultural study in English and Japanese. Am Ann Deaf 2000;145:237-244.

[57] Maguire EA, Cipolotti L. Selective sparing of topographical memory. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1998;65:903-909.

[58] Mecklinger A. On the modularity of recognition memory for object form and spatial location: a topographic ERP analysis. Neuropsychologia 1998;36:441- 460.

[59] Platel H, Price C, Baron J C, et al. The structural components of music perception:a functional anatomic study. Brain 1997; 120:229-243.

[60] Schmithorst VJ, Holland SK. The effect of musical training on music processing: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study in humans. Neurosci Lett 2003;348, 65-68.

[61] Sluming V, Barrick T, Howard M, Cezayirli E, Mayes A, Roberts N. Voxel-based morphometry reveals increased gray matter density in Broca's area in male symphony orchestra musicians. NeuroImage 2002;17:1613-1622.

[62] Sluming V, Brooks J, Howard M, Downes JJ, Roberts N. Broca's area supports enhanced visuospatial cognition in orchestral musicians. J Neurosci 2007;27:3799-3806.

[63] Chan AS, Kwok I. Hong Kong List Learning Test. Hong Kong, China: The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Department of Psychology; 1999.

[64] Schlaug G, Jäncke L, Huang Y, Steinmetz H. In vivo evidence of structural brain asymmetry in musicians. Science 1995; 267:699-701.

[65] Delis DC, Kaplan E, Kramer J, Ober BA. California Verbal Learning Test - Second Edition. USA: Psychological Corporation; 2000.

[66] Patel AD. Language, music, syntax, and the brain. Nat Neurosci 2003;6:674-681.

[67] Schmidt M. Rey Auditory and Verbal Learning Test:a handbook. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services; 1996.

[68] Ohnishi T, Matsuda H, Asada T, et al. Functional anatomy of musical perception in musicians. Cereb Cortex 2001;11: 754-760.

[69] Bever TG, Chiarello RJ. Cerebral dominance in musicians and non-musicians. Science 1974;185:537-539.

[70] Hirshkowitz M, Earle J, Paley B. EEG alpha asymmetry in musicians and non-musicians :a study of hemispheric specialization. Neuropsychologia 1978;16:125-128.

[71] Besson M, Faita F, Requin J. Brain waves associated with musical incongruities differ for musicians and non-musicians. Neurosci Lett 1994;168:101-105.

[72] Fujioka T, Ross B, Kakigi R, Pantev C, Trainor L. One year of musical training affects development of auditory cortical-evoked fields in young children. Brain 2006;129:2593-2598.

[73] Schellenberg EG, Peretz I. Music, language and cognition: unresolved issues. Trends Cogn Sci 2007;12:45-46.

[74] Norton A, Winner E, Cronin K, Overy K, Lee DJ, Schlaug G. Are there pre-existing neural, cognitive, or motoric markers for musical ability? Brain Cogn 2005;59:124-134.

[75] Hyde K, Lerch J, Norton A, et al. Musical training shapes structural brain development. J Neurosci 2009;29:3019-3025.

[76] Maguire EA, Gadian DG, Johnsrude IS, et al. Navigation-related structural change in the hippocampi of taxi drivers. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2000;97:4398-4403.

[77] Draganski B, Gaser C, Busch V, Schuierer G, Bogdahn U, May A. Neuroplasticity: changes in gray matter induced by training. Nature 2004;22, 427:311-312.

[78] Pascual-Leone A, Wassermann E M, Sadato N, Hallett M. The role of reading activity on the modulation of motor cortical outputs to the reading hand in Braille readers. Ann Neurol 1995;38:910-915.

[79] Karni A, Meyer G, Jezzard P, Adams MM, Turner R, Ungerleider LG. Functional MRI evidence for adult motor cortex plasticity during motor skill learning. Nature 1995;377:155-158.

[80] Karni A, Meyer G, Rey-Hipolito C, et al. The acquisition of skilled motor performance: fast and slow experience-driven changes in primary motor cortex. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998;95:861-868.

[81] Sims VK, Mayer RE. Domain specificity of spatial expertise: the case of video game players. Appl Cognitive Psych 2002; 16:97-115.

[82] Carlson SM, Meltzoff AM. Bilingual experience and executive functioning in young children. Develop Science 2008;11:282-298.

[83] Colzato L, Bajo MT, van den Wildenberg W, Paolieri D, Nieuwenhuis S, La Heij W. How does bilingualism improve executive control? A comparison of active and reactive inhibition mechanisms. J Exp Psychol Learn 2008;34:302-312.

[84] Bialystok E, Craik FIM, Ryan J. Executive control in a modified antisaccade task: effects of aging and bilingualism. J Exp Psychol 2006;32:1341-1354.

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