Age of acquisition and naming performance in Frisian-Dutch bilingual speakers with dementia

Veenstra, Wencke S.; Huisman, Mark; Miller, Nick

doi:10.1590/S1980-57642014DN83000009

Abstracts

Age of acquisition (AoA) of words is a recognised variable affecting language processing in speakers with and without language disorders. For bi- and multilingual speakers their languages can be differentially affected in neurological illness. Study of language loss in bilingual speakers with dementia has been relatively neglected.

OBJECTIVE:

We investigated whether AoA of words was associated with level of naming impairment in bilingual speakers with probable Alzheimer's dementia within and across their languages.

METHODS:

Twenty-six Frisian-Dutch bilinguals with mild to moderate dementia named 90 pictures in each language, employing items with rated AoA and other word variable measures matched across languages. Quantitative (totals correct) and qualitative (error types and (in)appropriate switching) aspects were measured.

RESULTS

Impaired retrieval occurred in Frisian (Language 1) and Dutch (Language 2), with a significant effect of AoA on naming in both languages. Earlier acquired words were better preserved and retrieved. Performance was identical across languages, but better in Dutch when controlling for covariates. However, participants demonstrated more inappropriate code switching within the Frisian test setting. On qualitative analysis, no differences in overall error distribution were found between languages for early or late acquired words. There existed a significantly higher percentage of semantically than visually-related errors.

CONCLUSION

These findings have implications for understanding problems in lexical retrieval among bilingual individuals with dementia and its relation to decline in other cognitive functions which may play a role in inappropriate code switching. We discuss the findings in the light of the close relationship between Frisian and Dutch and the pattern of usage across the life-span.

age of acquisition; bilingualism; picture naming; dementia

A idade de aquisição (IA) de palavras é uma variável reconhecida que interfere no processamento da linguagem em falantes com e sem distúrbios de linguagem. Para falantes bilíngues e multilíngues, a linguagem pode ser afetada diferenciadamente nas doenças neurológicas. O estudo da deterioração de linguagem em indivíduos falantes bilíngues com demência tem sido relativamente negligenciado.

OBJETIVO:

Nós investigamos se a IA de palavras estava associada ao grau de comprometimento da nomeação em indivíduos bilíngues com demência de Alzheimer provável em uma língua e entre as línguas faladas por eles.

MÉTODOS:

Trinta e seis bilíngues Frisio-holandeses com demência de grau leve a moderado nomearam 90 figuras em cada uma das línguas, pareadas quanto a IA e outras variáveis. Aspectos quantitativos (numero de acertos) e qualitativos (tipos de erros e trocas inadequadas de código) foram mensurados.

RESULTADOS:

Déficits de resgate lexical ocorreram no Frisio (Língua 1) e Holandês (Língua 2) com efeito significante da IA na nomeação em ambas as línguas. Palavras adquiridas mais precocemente foram mais preservadas e melhor resgatadas. O desempenho foi idêntico entre as línguas, mas melhor no Holandês, quando as covariáveis foram controladas. Entretanto, os participantes demonstraram mais mudanças impróprias de código no contexto do teste em Frísio. Na análise qualitativa não houve diferenças na distribuição global dos erros entre as línguas tanto para as palavras adquiridas precoce ou tardiamente. Houve uma porcentagem significativamente mais alta de erros semanticamente relacionados em relação aos visualmente relacionados.

CONCLUSÃO:

Os achados tem implicações para a compreensão de distúrbios de resgate lexical em indivíduos bilíngues com demência e a sua relação com o declínio em outras funções cognitivas que pode desempenhar um papel na inadequada mudança de código. Nós discutimos os achados à luz da estreita relação entre Frisio e Holandês e o padrão de uso durante a vida.

idade de aquisição; bilinguismo; nomeação de figuras; demência

Texto completo disponível apenas em PDF.

Full text available only in PDF format.

References

¹
Bialystok E, Craik FIM. Cognitive and linguistic processing in the bilingual mind. Curr Dir Psychol Sci 2010;19:19-23.
²
Goral M. First-language decline in healthy aging: implications for attrition in bilingualism. J Neurolinguistics 2004;17:31-52.
³
Schmid M (Editor). Language attrition. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press; 2011.
⁴
Abutalebi J. Neural aspects of second language representation and language control. Acta Psychol (Amst). 2008;128:466-478.
⁵
Montrul S, Foote R. Age of acquisition interactions in bilingual lexical access. Int J Bilingualism 2014;18:274-303.
⁶
Ansaldo A. K, Marcotte K, Scherer L, Raboyeau G. Language therapy and bilingual aphasia: Clinical implications of psycholinguistic and neuroimaging research. J Neurolinguistics 2008;21:539-557.
⁷
Marrero MZ, Golden CJ, Espe-Pfeifer P. Bilingualism, brain injury, and recovery: implications for understanding the bilingual and for therapy. Clin Psychol Rev. 2002;22:465-80.
⁸
Forbes-McKay KE, Ellis AW, Shanks MF, Venneri A.The age of acquisition of words produced in a semantic fluency task can reliably differentiate normal from pathological age related cognitive decline. Neuropsychologia 2005;43:1625-1632.
⁹
Gray T, Kiran S. A Theoretical account of lexical and semantic naming deficits in bilingual aphasia. J Speech Lang Hear Res 2013;56:1314-1327.
¹⁰
Lin CY, Chen TB, Lin KN, et al., Confrontation naming errors in Alzheimer's disease. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 2014;37:86-94.
¹¹
Cuetos F, Gonzalez-Nosti M, Martinez C. The picture-naming task in the analysis of cognitive deterioration in Alzheimer's disease. Aphasiology 2005;19:545-557.
¹²
Luk G, Bialystok E. Bilingualism is not a categorical variable: Interaction between language proficiency and usage. J Cogn Psychol 2013;25:605-621.
¹³
Paradis M. Neurolinguistic theory of bilingualism. Amsterdam: Benjamins; 2004.
¹⁴
Heidlmayr K, Moutier S, Hemforth B, Courtin C, Tanzmeister R, Isel F. Successive bilingualism and executive functions: The effect of second language use on inhibitory control in a behavioural Stroop Colour Word task. Bilingualism: Lang Cogn 2014;17:630-645.
¹⁵
Abutalebi J, Green D. Bilingual language production: The neurocognition of language representation and control. J Neuroling 2007;20:242-275.
¹⁶
Wattendorf E, Festmann J, Westermann B, et al. Early bilingualism influences early and subsequently later acquired languages in cortical regions representing control functions. Int J Bilingualism 2014;18:48-66.
¹⁷
Silverberg S, Samuel AG. The effect of age of second language acquisition on the representation and processing of second language words. J Mem Lang 2004;51:381-398.
¹⁸
Isel F, Baumgaertner A, Thrän J, Meisel J, Büchel C. Neural circuitry of the bilingual mental lexicon: Effect of age of second language acquisition. Brain Cogn 2010;72:169-180.
¹⁹
Stein M, Federspiel A, Koenig T, et al. Reduced frontal activation with increasing 2nd language proficiency. Neuropsychologia 2009;47:2712-2720.
²⁰
Perani D, Abutalebi J. The neural basis of first and second language processing. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2005;15:202-206.
²¹
Holmes SJ, Fitch FJ, Ellis AW. Age of acquisition affects object recognition and naming in patients with Alzheimer's disease. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2006;28:1010-1022.
²²
Wilson M, Cuetos F, Davies R, Burani C. Revisiting age-of-acquisition effects in spanish visual word recognition: The role of item imageability. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 2013;39:1842-1859.
²³
Catling JC, Johnston RA. The varying effects of age of acquisition. Quart J Exp Psychol 2009; 62:50-62.
²⁴
Catling J, Dent K, Preece E, Johnston R. Age-of-acquisition effects in novel picture naming: A laboratory analogue. Quart J Exp Psychol 2013;66:1756-1763.
²⁵
Cuetos F, Rodriguez-Ferreiro J, Sage K, Ellis A. A fresh look at the predictors of naming accuracy and errors in Alzheimer's disease. J Neuropsychol 2012;6:242-256.
²⁶
Costa A, Calabria M, Marne P, et al. On the parallel deterioration of lexico-semantic processes in the bilinguals' two languages: Evidence from Alzheimer's disease. Neuropsychologia 2012;50:740-753.
²⁷
Costa A, Santesteban M, Cano A, On the facilitatory effects of cognate words in bilingual speech production. Brain Lang 2005;94:94-103.
²⁸
Verreyt N, De Letter M, Hemelsoet D, Santens P, Duyck W. Cognate effects and executive control in a patient with differential bilingual aphasia. Appl Neuropsychol: Adult 2013;20:221-230.
²⁹
Gollan TH, Salmon D, Montoya R, de Pena E. Accessibility of the nondominant language in picture naming: a counterintuitive effect of dementia on bilingual language production. Neuropsychologia 2010;48: 1356-1366.
³⁰
Oldfield RC, Wingfield A. Response latencies in naming objects. Quart J Exp Psychol 1965;17:273-281.
³¹
Jescheniak JD, Levelt WJM. Word-Frequency effects in speech production - retrieval of syntactic information and of phonological form. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 1994;20:824-843.
³²
Morrison CM, Ellis AW, Quinlan PT. Age of acquisition, not word-frequency, affects object naming, not object recognition. Mem Cogn 1992; 20:705-714.
³³
Carroll JB, White MN. Word frequency and age of acquisition as determiners of picture-naming latency. Quart J Exp Psychol 1973; 25:85-95.
³⁴
Gilhooly KJ, Gilhooly MLM, Logie RH. The age-of-acquisition of words and adult performance. Bull Brit Psychol Soc 1980;33:182-183.
³⁵
Morrison CM, Ellis AW. Roles of word-frequency and age of acquisition in word naming and lexical decision. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 1995;21:116-133.
³⁶
Barry C, Morrison CM, Ellis AW. Naming the Snodgrass and Vanderwart pictures: Effects of age of acquisition, frequency and name agreement. Quart J Exp Psychol 1997;50:560-585.
³⁷
Ellis AW, Morrison CM. Real age-of-acquisition effects in lexical retrieval. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 1998;24:515-523.
³⁸
Cuetos F, Herrera E, Ellis AW. Impaired word recognition in Alzheimer's disease: The role of age of acquisition. Neuropsychologia, 2010;48: 3329-3334.
³⁹
Catling J, South F, Dent K. The effect of age of acquisition on older individuals with and without cognitive impairments. Quart J Exp Psychol 2013;66:1963-1973.
⁴⁰
Paradis M, Libben G. Assessment of bilingual aphasia. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum; 1987.
⁴¹
Stachowiak F (editor). Developments in the assessment and rehabilitation of brain damaged patients. Narr: Tubingen, Germany; 1993.
⁴²
Baayen R, Piepenbrock R, Van Rijn H. The CELEX lexical database. University of Nijmegen: Linguistic Data Consortium; 1993.
⁴³
Morrison CM, Chappell TD, Ellis AW. Age of acquisition norms for a large set of object names and their relation to adult estimates and other variables. Quart J Exp Psychol. 1997;50:528-559.
⁴⁴
Gilhooly KJ, Logie RH. Age-of-acquisition, imagery, concreteness, familiarity, and ambiguity measures for 1,944 words. Behav Res Meth Instrument 1980;12:395-427.
⁴⁵
Druks J, Weekes BS. Parallel deterioration to language processing in a bilingual speaker. Cogn Neuropsychol 2014;30:578-596.
⁴⁶
Perani D, Abutalebi J, Paulesu E, et al. The role of age of acquisition and language usage in early, high-proficient bilinguals: An fMRI study during verbal fluency. Hum Brain Mapp 2003;19:170-182.
⁴⁷
Buchweitz A, Shinkareva S, Mason R, Mitchell T, Just M. Identifying bilingual semantic neural representations across languages. Brain Lang 2012;120:282-289.
⁴⁸
De Santi S, Obler L, Sabo-Abramson H. Discourse abilities and deficits in multilingual dementia. In: Joanette Y, Brownell H, Editors. Discourse ability and brain damage. Berlin: Springer; 1989:224-235.
⁴⁹
Hyltenstam K, Stroud C. Bilingualism in Alzheimer's dementia. In: Hyltenstam K, Obler L, Editors. Bilingualism across the lifespan. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 1989:222-242
⁵⁰
Friedland D, Miller N. Language mixing in bilingual speakers with Alzheimer's dementia: a conversation analysis approach. Aphasiology 1999;13:427-444.
⁵¹
Van Assche E, Duyck W, Gollan TH. Whole-language and item-specific control in bilingual language production. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 2013;39:1781-1792.
⁵²
Kohnert K. Cognitive and cognate-based treatments for bilingual aphasia: A case study. Brain Lang 2004;91:294-302.
⁵³
Colaço D, Mineiro A, Castro Caldas A. Phonological and speech output in adult nonliterate groups. In: Miller N et al Ed. Motor speech disorders: a cross language perspective. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters; 2014:105-124.
⁵⁴
Cuetos F, Alvarez B, Gonzales-Nostri M, Meot A, Bonin P. Determinants of lexical access in speech production: Role of word frequency and age of acquisition. Mem Cogn 2006;34:999-1010.
⁵⁵
Goral M, Libben G, Obler L, Jarema G, Ohayon K. Lexical attrition in younger and older bilingual adults. Clin Linguist Phon 2008;22:509-522.
⁵⁶
Dent K, Johnston RA, Humphreys GW. Age of acquisition and word frequency effects in picture naming: A dual-task investigation. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 2008;34:282-301.
⁵⁷
Urooj U, Cornelissen PL, Simpson MI, et al., Interactions between visual and semantic processing during object recognition revealed by modulatory effects of age of acquisition. Neuroimage 2014;87:252-264.

APPENDIX 1 Picture names in Frisian and Dutch with mean rated age of acquisition (AoA) and word frequency.

Publication Dates

Publication in this collection
Sept 2014

History

Received
18 Mar 2014
Accepted
20 June 2014

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License, which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

[1] ¹
Bialystok E, Craik FIM. Cognitive and linguistic processing in the bilingual mind. Curr Dir Psychol Sci 2010;19:19-23.

[2] ²
Goral M. First-language decline in healthy aging: implications for attrition in bilingualism. J Neurolinguistics 2004;17:31-52.

[3] ³
Schmid M (Editor). Language attrition. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press; 2011.

[4] ⁴
Abutalebi J. Neural aspects of second language representation and language control. Acta Psychol (Amst). 2008;128:466-478.

[5] ⁵
Montrul S, Foote R. Age of acquisition interactions in bilingual lexical access. Int J Bilingualism 2014;18:274-303.

[6] ⁶
Ansaldo A. K, Marcotte K, Scherer L, Raboyeau G. Language therapy and bilingual aphasia: Clinical implications of psycholinguistic and neuroimaging research. J Neurolinguistics 2008;21:539-557.

[7] ⁷
Marrero MZ, Golden CJ, Espe-Pfeifer P. Bilingualism, brain injury, and recovery: implications for understanding the bilingual and for therapy. Clin Psychol Rev. 2002;22:465-80.

[8] ⁸
Forbes-McKay KE, Ellis AW, Shanks MF, Venneri A.The age of acquisition of words produced in a semantic fluency task can reliably differentiate normal from pathological age related cognitive decline. Neuropsychologia 2005;43:1625-1632.

[9] ⁹
Gray T, Kiran S. A Theoretical account of lexical and semantic naming deficits in bilingual aphasia. J Speech Lang Hear Res 2013;56:1314-1327.

[10] ¹⁰
Lin CY, Chen TB, Lin KN, et al., Confrontation naming errors in Alzheimer's disease. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 2014;37:86-94.

[11] ¹¹
Cuetos F, Gonzalez-Nosti M, Martinez C. The picture-naming task in the analysis of cognitive deterioration in Alzheimer's disease. Aphasiology 2005;19:545-557.

[12] ¹²
Luk G, Bialystok E. Bilingualism is not a categorical variable: Interaction between language proficiency and usage. J Cogn Psychol 2013;25:605-621.

[13] ¹³
Paradis M. Neurolinguistic theory of bilingualism. Amsterdam: Benjamins; 2004.

[14] ¹⁴
Heidlmayr K, Moutier S, Hemforth B, Courtin C, Tanzmeister R, Isel F. Successive bilingualism and executive functions: The effect of second language use on inhibitory control in a behavioural Stroop Colour Word task. Bilingualism: Lang Cogn 2014;17:630-645.

[15] ¹⁵
Abutalebi J, Green D. Bilingual language production: The neurocognition of language representation and control. J Neuroling 2007;20:242-275.

[16] ¹⁶
Wattendorf E, Festmann J, Westermann B, et al. Early bilingualism influences early and subsequently later acquired languages in cortical regions representing control functions. Int J Bilingualism 2014;18:48-66.

[17] ¹⁷
Silverberg S, Samuel AG. The effect of age of second language acquisition on the representation and processing of second language words. J Mem Lang 2004;51:381-398.

[18] ¹⁸
Isel F, Baumgaertner A, Thrän J, Meisel J, Büchel C. Neural circuitry of the bilingual mental lexicon: Effect of age of second language acquisition. Brain Cogn 2010;72:169-180.

[19] ¹⁹
Stein M, Federspiel A, Koenig T, et al. Reduced frontal activation with increasing 2nd language proficiency. Neuropsychologia 2009;47:2712-2720.

[20] ²⁰
Perani D, Abutalebi J. The neural basis of first and second language processing. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2005;15:202-206.

[21] ²¹
Holmes SJ, Fitch FJ, Ellis AW. Age of acquisition affects object recognition and naming in patients with Alzheimer's disease. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2006;28:1010-1022.

[22] ²²
Wilson M, Cuetos F, Davies R, Burani C. Revisiting age-of-acquisition effects in spanish visual word recognition: The role of item imageability. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 2013;39:1842-1859.

[23] ²³
Catling JC, Johnston RA. The varying effects of age of acquisition. Quart J Exp Psychol 2009; 62:50-62.

[24] ²⁴
Catling J, Dent K, Preece E, Johnston R. Age-of-acquisition effects in novel picture naming: A laboratory analogue. Quart J Exp Psychol 2013;66:1756-1763.

[25] ²⁵
Cuetos F, Rodriguez-Ferreiro J, Sage K, Ellis A. A fresh look at the predictors of naming accuracy and errors in Alzheimer's disease. J Neuropsychol 2012;6:242-256.

[26] ²⁶
Costa A, Calabria M, Marne P, et al. On the parallel deterioration of lexico-semantic processes in the bilinguals' two languages: Evidence from Alzheimer's disease. Neuropsychologia 2012;50:740-753.

[27] ²⁷
Costa A, Santesteban M, Cano A, On the facilitatory effects of cognate words in bilingual speech production. Brain Lang 2005;94:94-103.

[28] ²⁸
Verreyt N, De Letter M, Hemelsoet D, Santens P, Duyck W. Cognate effects and executive control in a patient with differential bilingual aphasia. Appl Neuropsychol: Adult 2013;20:221-230.

[29] ²⁹
Gollan TH, Salmon D, Montoya R, de Pena E. Accessibility of the nondominant language in picture naming: a counterintuitive effect of dementia on bilingual language production. Neuropsychologia 2010;48: 1356-1366.

[30] ³⁰
Oldfield RC, Wingfield A. Response latencies in naming objects. Quart J Exp Psychol 1965;17:273-281.

[31] ³¹
Jescheniak JD, Levelt WJM. Word-Frequency effects in speech production - retrieval of syntactic information and of phonological form. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 1994;20:824-843.

[32] ³²
Morrison CM, Ellis AW, Quinlan PT. Age of acquisition, not word-frequency, affects object naming, not object recognition. Mem Cogn 1992; 20:705-714.

[33] ³³
Carroll JB, White MN. Word frequency and age of acquisition as determiners of picture-naming latency. Quart J Exp Psychol 1973; 25:85-95.

[34] ³⁴
Gilhooly KJ, Gilhooly MLM, Logie RH. The age-of-acquisition of words and adult performance. Bull Brit Psychol Soc 1980;33:182-183.

[35] ³⁵
Morrison CM, Ellis AW. Roles of word-frequency and age of acquisition in word naming and lexical decision. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 1995;21:116-133.

[36] ³⁶
Barry C, Morrison CM, Ellis AW. Naming the Snodgrass and Vanderwart pictures: Effects of age of acquisition, frequency and name agreement. Quart J Exp Psychol 1997;50:560-585.

[37] ³⁷
Ellis AW, Morrison CM. Real age-of-acquisition effects in lexical retrieval. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 1998;24:515-523.

[38] ³⁸
Cuetos F, Herrera E, Ellis AW. Impaired word recognition in Alzheimer's disease: The role of age of acquisition. Neuropsychologia, 2010;48: 3329-3334.

[39] ³⁹
Catling J, South F, Dent K. The effect of age of acquisition on older individuals with and without cognitive impairments. Quart J Exp Psychol 2013;66:1963-1973.

[40] ⁴⁰
Paradis M, Libben G. Assessment of bilingual aphasia. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum; 1987.

[41] ⁴¹
Stachowiak F (editor). Developments in the assessment and rehabilitation of brain damaged patients. Narr: Tubingen, Germany; 1993.

[42] ⁴²
Baayen R, Piepenbrock R, Van Rijn H. The CELEX lexical database. University of Nijmegen: Linguistic Data Consortium; 1993.

[43] ⁴³
Morrison CM, Chappell TD, Ellis AW. Age of acquisition norms for a large set of object names and their relation to adult estimates and other variables. Quart J Exp Psychol. 1997;50:528-559.

[44] ⁴⁴
Gilhooly KJ, Logie RH. Age-of-acquisition, imagery, concreteness, familiarity, and ambiguity measures for 1,944 words. Behav Res Meth Instrument 1980;12:395-427.

[45] ⁴⁵
Druks J, Weekes BS. Parallel deterioration to language processing in a bilingual speaker. Cogn Neuropsychol 2014;30:578-596.

[46] ⁴⁶
Perani D, Abutalebi J, Paulesu E, et al. The role of age of acquisition and language usage in early, high-proficient bilinguals: An fMRI study during verbal fluency. Hum Brain Mapp 2003;19:170-182.

[47] ⁴⁷
Buchweitz A, Shinkareva S, Mason R, Mitchell T, Just M. Identifying bilingual semantic neural representations across languages. Brain Lang 2012;120:282-289.

[48] ⁴⁸
De Santi S, Obler L, Sabo-Abramson H. Discourse abilities and deficits in multilingual dementia. In: Joanette Y, Brownell H, Editors. Discourse ability and brain damage. Berlin: Springer; 1989:224-235.

[49] ⁴⁹
Hyltenstam K, Stroud C. Bilingualism in Alzheimer's dementia. In: Hyltenstam K, Obler L, Editors. Bilingualism across the lifespan. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 1989:222-242

[50] ⁵⁰
Friedland D, Miller N. Language mixing in bilingual speakers with Alzheimer's dementia: a conversation analysis approach. Aphasiology 1999;13:427-444.

[51] ⁵¹
Van Assche E, Duyck W, Gollan TH. Whole-language and item-specific control in bilingual language production. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 2013;39:1781-1792.

[52] ⁵²
Kohnert K. Cognitive and cognate-based treatments for bilingual aphasia: A case study. Brain Lang 2004;91:294-302.

[53] ⁵³
Colaço D, Mineiro A, Castro Caldas A. Phonological and speech output in adult nonliterate groups. In: Miller N et al Ed. Motor speech disorders: a cross language perspective. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters; 2014:105-124.

[54] ⁵⁴
Cuetos F, Alvarez B, Gonzales-Nostri M, Meot A, Bonin P. Determinants of lexical access in speech production: Role of word frequency and age of acquisition. Mem Cogn 2006;34:999-1010.

[55] ⁵⁵
Goral M, Libben G, Obler L, Jarema G, Ohayon K. Lexical attrition in younger and older bilingual adults. Clin Linguist Phon 2008;22:509-522.

[56] ⁵⁶
Dent K, Johnston RA, Humphreys GW. Age of acquisition and word frequency effects in picture naming: A dual-task investigation. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 2008;34:282-301.

[57] ⁵⁷
Urooj U, Cornelissen PL, Simpson MI, et al., Interactions between visual and semantic processing during object recognition revealed by modulatory effects of age of acquisition. Neuroimage 2014;87:252-264.

Brasil