The Institutionalization Process of the Formal Structures of Tourism Research (FSTR) in Brazil

El Proceso de Institucionalización de las Estructuras Formales de Investigación en Turismo (EFIT) en Brasil

Abstract

This paper analyzes the institutionalization process-habitualization, objectivation and sedimentation (Berger & Luckmann, 1966)-of the Formal Structures of Tourism Research (FSTR) in Brazil, guided by the institutional theoretical lenses, in its sociological perspective. This is a descriptive and explanatory survey research. Empirically, secondary data was collected from all the 234 existing FSTR since 1964 and active in 2016 in the CNPq (Science and Technology Council) directory of research groups, elected as the most representative type of FSTR in the previous survey (Pimentel, 2016). Statistical analyses were done by SPSS software and content analysis was used for qualitative data. Three main periods were identified regarding the FSTR institutionalization process in Brazil: the first one (1964-2001), Habitualization, higher education courses were created for the training in tourism, the subject of "tourism" spread in academic circles and its insertion as a line of research was observed. The second one, Objectivation (2002-2009), the subject was consolidated through the creation of specific groups of research, in a huge expansion. The third one (2010 to present), the sedimentation of the FSTR occur, the contingent of tourism graduates, with masters and doctoral degrees, inserted in Higher Education Institutions as teacher-researchers, and new generations of researchers are beginning to form. However, the full institutionalization process requires the intergenerational transmission of the objective structures, as well as the symbolic references of knowledge generation.

Keywords:
Formal Structures of Tourism Research/FSTR; Institutional Theory; Institutionalization Process; Higher Education Institution/HEI; Brazil

Resumen

Ese artículo analiza el proceso de institucionalización - habitualización, objetivación y sedimentación (Berger y Luckmann, 1966)- de las Estructuras Formales de Investigación en Turismo/EFIT en Brasil, por medio de la teoría institucional, en su perspectiva sociológica. Esa investigación, descriptiva y explicativa, es del tipo censo. Por lo tanto, se recorrió a la aprehensión de datos secundarios, de todas las 234 EFITs, existentes entre 1964 y 2016, empíricamente consideradas como grupos de investigaciones formalmente registradas y activas en el directorio de grupos en el CNPq (Pimentel, 2016). Los datos fueron tratados cuantitativamente con el apoyo del software SPSS y cualitativamente por la técnica de análisis del contenido. Fueron identificadas 3 etapas importantes en el proceso de institucionalización de las EFITs en Brasil; en la primera etapa (1964-2001) de Habitualización, se crearan cursos superiores para la formación vocacional en turismo, se expandió el tema “turismo” en el ambiente académico y se observó su inserción como línea de investigación. En la segunda etapa, de la Objetivación (2002-2009), el tema se consolidó vía creación de grupos específicos de investigación, en gran cantidad. En la tercera etapa (2010-actual), se sedimentó las EFITs, se observó el contingente de egresos de graduaciones en turismo, con maestría y doctorado, e insertos en IES como profesores-investigadores, empieza la formación de nuevas generaciones. Todavía, una plena institucionalización requiere la transmisión intergeneracional de estructuras objetivas y referencias simbólicas de generación de conocimiento.

Palavras clave:
Estructuras Formales de Investigación en Turismo/EFIT; Teoría Institucional; Proceso de Institucionalización; Institución de Enseñanza Superior/IES; Brasil

Resumo

Este artigo analisa o processo de institucionalização - habitualização, objetivação e sedimentação (Berger e Luckmann, 1966) - das Estruturas Formais de Investigação em Turismo/EFIT no Brasil, através da teoria institucional, em sua perspectiva histórica. Esta pesquisa, descritiva e explicativa, é do tipo censo. Empiricamente, recorreu-se a apreensão de dados secundários, de todos os 234 grupos de pesquisa formalmente registrados desde 1964 e ativos em 2016 no diretório de grupos do CNPq, eleitos como o tipo mais representativo de EFIT na pesquisa anterior (Pimentel, 2016a). Os dados foram tratados quantitativamente por meio do software SPSS e qualitativamente pela técnica de análise de conteúdo. Foram identificadas 3 etapas marcantes no processo de institucionalização das EFIT no Brasil: na primeira fase (1964-2001) de Habitualização, criaram-se cursos superiores para a formação em turismo, expandiu-se o tema “turismo” no ambiente acadêmico e observou-se sua inserção como linha de pesquisa. Na segunda fase, da Objetivação (2002-2009), o tema consolidou-se via criação de grupos específicos de pesquisa, em grande quantidade. Na terceira fase (2010-atual), sedimentam-se as EFIT, observa-se o contingente de egressos de graduações em turismo, com mestrado e doutorado, inseridos em IES como professores-pesquisadores e começa a formar-se novas gerações de pesquisadores. Todavia, uma plena institucionalização requer a transmissão intergeracional de estruturas objetivas e referencias simbólicas de geração de conhecimento.

Palavras-chave:
Estruturas Formais de Investigação em Turismo/EFIT; Teoria Institucional; Processo de Institucionalização; Instituição de Ensino Superior/IES; Brasil

1 INTRODUCTION

This paper aims to analyze the process of Institutionalization of Formal Structures of Tourism Research (FSTR) in Brazil, here understood as the emergence, expansion, consolidation, and sedimentation of the teaching and research field of tourism.

The growing path of specialized groups in tourism research in Brazil, in the last 50 years, are examined seeking to identify their structural characteristics within the organizational analysis model (Musselin, 2005; DiMaggio & Powell, 2005; Pimentel, Pereira & Boas, 2011, Pimentel, 2014a), and the activities they carry out, to extract explanatory elements about the current stage of academic research in tourism in Brazil.

The initial basis of this proposal was to differentiate scientific production that is voluntary, spontaneous, unsystematic, and inconstant over time, from the one that is collective, structured, stabilized, and perennial, assuming as a premise the idea that this second type of scientific production, would already represent, to some extent, an institutionalized process (Pimentel, 2016a; Pimentel, Carvalho & Bifano-Oliveira, 2017).

Thus, drawing on the sociology of knowledge (Merton, 1945; Gurvitch, 1964) we sought to answer the question: can tourism be considered an institutionalized field of knowledge in Brazil? This question is based on the argument that educational institutions, occupy a privileged role in contemporary societies, due to their capacity for updating, feedback, and intervention in other systems, inserting themselves in this context as highly specialized structures, whose results affect significantly the other social systems (Pimentel, Carvalho & Pimentel, 2017). Thus, it is expected that knowledge would not only be produced but also reproduced in the academic environment forming, par excellence, morphogenic and morphostatic processes (Buckley, 1971; Archer, 1998).

This research uses the theoretical framework of institutional theory, in its historical and sociological perspective, to try to identify the phases of institutionalization of tourism in the Brazilian university context, as well as to show the way(s) such forms shape different arrangements, in the process of emergence of the academic subfield of tourism in Brazil (Pimentel, 2016a), through the elaboration of a social order (Friedberg, 1996), which materializes and soothes through the constitution of structures of tourism research.

Specifically, we explore the concept of path dependence (Mahoney, 2000) applied to tourism research in relation to the empirical constitution of the formal structures of research in the field. This notion helps to understand how previous actions and structures have conditioned possibilities for subsequent choices and, thus, create the results we see today. On the other hand, it is argued that being aware of a current state of things, allows us to make changes in a trend, altering future possibilities. Regarding FSTR, in Brazil, such knowledge allows us not only to understand how we got to the current situation, but also, perhaps, to draw up possibilities of alternative paths, as well as to predict certain desirable future situations.

Tourism studies based on the assumptions of the institutional theory are recent and incipient (Song, Dwyer, Li & Cao, 2012; Lavandoski, Albino Silva & Vargas-Sánchez, 2014; Pimentel, 2014a, b, Carvalho, 2015; Cintra, Amâncio-Vieira & Costa, 2016; Falaster, Zanin & Guerrazzi, 2017; Endres & Matias, 2018), and even scarcer when specifying the type of institutional theory, for example, historical institutionalism (Endres & Matias, 2018; Estol, Camilleri & Font, 2018; Falaster, Zanin & Guerrazzi, 2017; Carvalho, 2015), and especially when applied to the subject of tourism research (Falaster, Zanin & Guerrazzi, 2017; Pimentel, 2016b; Pimentel, Carvalho & Bifano-Oliveira, 2017; Pimentel, Carvalho & Pimentel, 2017; Pimentel, Carvalho & Oliveira, 2018). Moreover, a considerable part of this already scarce literature is devoted to the production of theoretical reviews, which suggests the potential novelty of this effort, whose dialogue with the aforementioned literature provides empirical evidence, with longitudinal cut.

The text is organized in five parts, in addition to this introduction. Section 2 details the theoretical framework on institutional and organizational theory. Part 3 discusses the use of institutional theory in tourism studies. The methodology of the research carried out is described in section 4. In section 5, the results obtained on the process of institutionalization of FSTR are presented, followed by the discussion and analysis of the results. The last part (6) offers the concluding remarks of the article.

2 INSTITUTIONAL THEORY AND PROCESSES OF INSTITUTIONALIZATION

For Berger and Luckmann (1966; 2004), human existence is the result of sociocultural and psychological formations, which reflect a social order that precedes the individual and is influenced and maintained by the very action of the human being in a continuous process. In this sense, it is a unique product of human activity. The authors use the idea of institutionalization to explain the causes that lead to the emergence or maintenance of a social order, considering that human activity, which is apprehended and reproduced in the same way, with the same effort, over time, becomes a standard, of a significant nature to the individuals.

According to Immergut (2007), the premises of the institutional tradition or "old" institutionalism precede social and political theories, and devote attention to show how institutions determine human behavior through their preferences and decisions. In the mid-twentieth century political science theorists focused their explanations on the Behaviorist and Rational Choice principles, on the analytical basis of the sociopsychological characteristics of individuals (Peters, 1999; Immergut, 2007). However, exogenous influences in determining individual decisions were not evaluated (Peters, 1999).

In the 1980s, a movement to reaffirm institutional theories in the social sciences began to reject the analysis of observable conduct as a basic starting point for political and social studies (Hall & Taylor, 2003; Immergut, 2007). March and Olsen (1984) are thus considered the precursors of the revolution contrary to methodological individualism, characteristic of behaviorist (anthropology/psychology) and Rational Choice approaches (Peters, 2000).

In this context, Hall and Taylor (2003) and Immergut (2007) separate the new institutional theory into three main strands: Institutionalism of Rational Choice, Sociological Institutionalism, and Historical Institutionalism. Sociological institutionalism emerged in the debates of the 1970s as a criticism of the Carnegie School's rationality (Immergut, 2007). According to Peters (2000), the central ideas of this movement are presented by Zucker (1987), DiMaggio and Powell (1991) and Scott (1995). It was argued, according to Immergut (2007), that time and information were not enough for an individual to foresee the consequences of his decision. In this sense, the behavior would be based on institutional norms superior to the will to maximize preferences (March & Olsen, 1984).

This perspective holds that procedures observed in modern organizations were not adopted only for efficiency, as the notion of "rationality" suggests (Hall & Taylor, 2003). In this context, March & Olsen (2005, p. 1) define an institution as a set of rules and organized practices, which are relatively long lasting, are inserted in "structures of meaning", have invariant resources, even with the rotation of individuals that compose it, in addition to maintaining them "resilient to the idiosyncratic preferences and expectations of individuals" and changing external environment.

Thus, bureaucratic practices should be explained by culturalist or subjective foundations (Meyer & Rowan, 1977; Meyer & Scott, 1983; DiMaggio & Powell, 1991), to clarify why procedures or symbols are assimilated into organizational practices. Therefore, a cognitive dimension, the "culture", tends to be redefined as synonymous with "institution" (Zucker, 1987; Powell & DiMaggio, 1991; Meyer & Scott, 1983).

Hence, institutions condition behavior not only in concrete actions, but also in the meanings of social life. This argument is identified in the social constructivism of Berger and Luckmann (1966; 2004), who consider the determination of institutions in the identity that social actors have of themselves.

According to Berger and Luckmann (1966, 2004), the process of institutionalization and its result (the institutions) can be seen as the result of processes of social interaction and of the interpretation of reality that occur through an innovative response to a given problem context. To the extent that such a solution is used in a recurring way by the members of the same group, a process of habitualization is established, and at the moment that this solution is hegemonic and officially placed as "the" way of dealing with the problem, will be considered objectified, as if it existed a priori. The cycle closes when this form of solution of a real problem is passed on from the current generation to the next.

The process of displacing this reference to new individuals who will be socialized in this order, without the background of the original context of the problem, nor the reflection on other possibilities, will lead to the next phase, sedimentation, when it is already possible to be called institutionalization, because an institutional world "is experienced as an objective reality" (Berger & Luckmann, 2004, p. 86), perceived independently of individuals and their will. Figure 1 represents the process of institutionalization according to the categories of analysis habitualization, objectification and sedimentation proposed by Berger and Luckmann (1966; 2004).

Figure 1
Component processes of institutionalization

Peters (2000) considers that historical institutionalism is a more elaborate version than rationalist and sociological approaches since, in addition to attention to formal institutions, such approach examines the institutional design and the way institutions manifest themselves, from the notion that the configuration of organized groups and the power of influence exerted by them stem from historical conjunctures (Hall & Taylor, 2003). Therefore, historical analysis is the basis for the explanation of institutionalization processes, because it helps to understand how contextual changes that occurred led to the maintenance of ideas, meanings, preferences, and social practices, while at times creating a favorable environment for changing and the re-signification of social processes.

According to this perspective, the institution is defined as "official and unofficial procedures, protocols, norms and conventions" that are related to an organizational structure (Hall & Taylor, 2003, p. 196). Thus, the argument that institutions are permanent components for the historical development of a set of "paths" (Hall, 1986) is built. The search for the explanation of the paths that led to the formation of these trajectories is precisely one of the main interests of the studies of this approach (Collier & Collier, 1991), as well as the differentiation of periods of continuity (or stability), critical events that lead to institutional change (Gourevitch, 1986). The central problem is to explain what triggers these critical moments (Skocpol 1979; Gourevitch 1986; Pierson 2003).

In this sense, the maintenance of social systems is associated with the idea of stability and prosperity, while the possibility of change is observed through the identification of divergences and demands for efforts for these systems to continue operating from the same norms and processes (Gourevitch, 1986). Therefore, key institutions in providing an agenda for discussion should periodically reaffirm their commitment to the activity developed according to the rules of an established game (Hall & Soskice, 2001).

It is important to consider that, relationship networks condition the design of social systems, based on the calculation of the costs of a decision for the group and its surroundings, as well as the benefits sought by FSTRs (Hall, 1986). In this context, it is important to consider that the constraints that lead to the formation of an institution come from stimuli of the political, economic, and social environment of the actors that participate in the decision-making process (Goodin et al., 2008).

In addition, fundamental in historical-institutional analysis, the concept of path dependence supports explanations about how and why certain decisions are made, or certain movements occurred, to the detriment of other options (Hall, 1986). This concept is based on the idea that the decisions of the past confine the present decision processes and restrict the possibilities of the actors to seek new directions, even though the decision taken is not a priori the most correct or efficient at the time (Skocpol, 1979; Hall, 1986). In this context, Thelen (2004) argues that there are critical events that lead institutions to follow their trajectories, and that such entities are in a constant process of adaptation, depending on the environment that determines them. Accordingly, while several small events occur continuously (Mahoney & Schensul, 2006), the moment of change is the result of a historical process that takes place over a long period, which will result in a specific event that triggers the beginning of a new context (Pierson, 2003).

Taking this separation into account, in this work we will focus predominantly-but not exclusively¹-on the historical perspective of the study of institutions, or more specifically, on the historical sociological approach (Mahoney, 2000). From the contributions of the institutional theory, precisely the concepts of habitualization, objectification, and sedimentation, as well as the concepts of path dependence and institutional change, we seek to examine the formation of the research field of tourism in Brazil.

3 INSTITUTIONAL THEORY AND STUDIES IN TOURISM

Despite their reputation and popularity in the social sciences, tourism studies that use the framework of institutional theory are recent and incipient (Lavandoski, Albino Silva & Vargas-Sánchez, 2014), and often do not specify and deepen them, in one of its aspects. A considerable part of this already scarce literature is dedicated to reviews, or when dealing with empirical research, the case study is the most used research design (Pimentel, Pereira & Boas, 2011).

On the other hand, Gyr (2010) considers that tourism studies originated in the field of business and economics, based on an institutional approach; while analyses based on cultural sciences and historical research appeared later. However, given the polysemy of the term institution-and its frequent confusion with “organization”, since organizational studies do not present a unified theory or perspective, but different views across geographic regions and shared discourses (March, 2010)-it is possible to question what was understood by the "institutional approach", according to Gyr (2010).

Anyway, the early twentieth century² context definitively implies, even if one accepts the conceptual similarity, a radical difference between the institutional approach of the years 1920/1930, dubbed old institutionalism, and its theoretical evolution in the second half of the same century (new institutionalism), in order not to enter in a deeper debate about its specific types and aspects.

In the theoretical field Lavandoski, Albino Silva and Vargas-Sánchez (2014) present the most recurrent areas, themes, and research objects in which institutional theory is used in tourism (Frame 1). At the international level, according to the authors, this aspect has been mobilized to analyze tourism in relation to studies on: environment, entrepreneurship, innovation, technology, social responsibility, institutional arrangements, governance, public policies, and political trust, with the focus on the articulation between diverse stakeholders of a specific context. In addition, these studies are considered to be underutilized given their consolidation as a theoretical perspective to explain organizational approach. In this sense, Song et al. (2012), propose the expansion of the use of the institutional theory in studies on tourism economics with the aim of advancing the frontiers of knowledge on the subject.

Frame 1
Main research areas of Institutional Theory in Tourism.

Sector	Search Area	Authors
Tourism	Environmental	Strambach & Surmeier (2013); Riviera (2004); Shah (2011); Vargas-Sánchez & Riquel-Ligero (2010; 2011; 2012); Riquel-Ligero (2010; 2011); Riquel-Ligero & Vargas-Sánchez (2012a; 2012b; 2013); Grimstad & Burgess (2012)
	Entrepreneurship	McCarthy (2012); Roxas & Chadee (2013)
	Innovation	Ottenbacher & Harrington (2009); Gyau & Stringer (2011)
	Technologies	Ali et al. (2013); Vatanasakdakul & Aoun (2009)
	Social Responsibility	Sánchez-Fernández (2012)
	Institutional Arrangement	Forbord et al. (2012); karhunen (2008); Ingram (1998); Wilke & Rodrigues (2013)
	Governance Structures	Lapeyre (2009); Lapeyre (2011a)
	Public policy	Wang & Ap (2013); Urbano et al. (2010)
	Political trust	Nunkoo et al. (2012); Nunkoo & Smith (2013)

• Source: Lavandoski, Albino Silva and Vargas-Sánchez (2014, p. 35).

Among the empirical studies of tourism based on the institutional theory Aureli and Baldo (2019) seek to examine the role of private organizations, focusing on the administration of Convention Bureaus, paying particular attention to the diversity between the members that form the entity and the need for integrated information about the actions in the institutional scope. They observe that the use of methodologies based on the attention to stakeholder expectations is restricted to subjects linked to the financial contribution, to the detriment of a moral basis that conditions the decisions of these entities.

Also, observing the case of the private sector, Gomes, Vargas-Sánchez and Pessali (2014) analyze the interaction of the tourist trade, in Huelva (Spain). In this work the concepts of entrepreneurship, governance, and public policies are emphasized. The authors note that despite the mutual awareness between the public sector and entrepreneurs about their interdependence, there is a difference in behavior where, while the public sector organizes, regulates, and tries to promote greater interaction and synergy among the actors' efforts; in the business sector, a small-scale competition permeated by opportunistic rationality seems to predominate. Nevertheless, there is a group of entrepreneurs whose objectives converge with the public sector, which has made it possible to make public policies more synergistic and efficient.

Still in the Spanish context of private companies, Garcia-Cabrera and Durán-Herrera (2014), discuss how the effects of an economic crisis stimulate tourism companies to generate innovation to remain competitive. Thus, the promotion of changes in institutional contexts on the one hand, or the search to avoid changes considered harmful to their business, on the other hand, are some of the possible strategies of action identified in these relational contexts. In conclusion, the authors highlight how the shared environment between tourist organizations and the political-institutional context was remodeled through a bi-directional and co-evolutionary process.

In the same line, Le et al. (2006) analyze the factors that interfere in the adoption or rejection of environmentally friendly practices in Vietnamese hotel organizations. They observe the conditioning factors for the adoption of innovations in these companies. From an empirical study, the organizational characteristics, as well as evidence of FSTRs benefits, are identified as influential in these processes.

In Brazil, there are also evidence of few studies in tourism supported by institutional theory. Recently, Endres and Matias (2018) examined the trajectory of the main actors directly involved with the development of tourism in Paraíba and in João Pessoa, between 1970 and 2017. Based on the framework of institutional theory, in its historical institutionalism approach, the authors observe the changes in institutions from frameworks, critical conjunctures, and legacies left by the trajectories of actors involved in tourism in the studied region. Their findings reveal that public agencies (in particular PBTUR - Empresa Paraibana de Turismo) coordinate the actions, despite their fragile internal autonomy and lack of available resources; policies to create regulatory frameworks and institutions have not advanced much in the process of tourism development; and, finally, it is necessary to involve civil society organizations in the decision-making process.

Also, investigating the northeastern region of Brazil, through an exploratory and descriptive research, Silva (2017) examined how the public power, in its various spheres, historically promoted the tourist activity, starting from an economic approach and its reflexes in the institutionalization of municipal tourism in Brazil. Thus, it points out that tourism has consolidated in the governmental agenda as a driver of economic development. The methodology of the work selected 23 tourist municipalities, considered to be priorities for the government of the state of Pará and served by national programs. The results revealed the institutional and organizational profile of tourism, at the local scale, based on interviews and documentary consultations conducted in the period between 2013 and 2016.

Another case study carried out in Brazil is by Fazito, Scott and Russell (2016), who observe the process of social construction of the discourse on sustainability in Serra do Espinhaço, declared biosphere reserve by UNESCO. Thus, the authors seek the embodied representations in this territory considering their diverse origins and interests. Finally, they find the formation of an inaccurate institutional discourse, which contributes to some groups maintaining their decision-making power over tourism.

In the southern region of Brazil, Araújo and Malheiros (2013) analyzed the evolution of regional development using the Organizational Model of Local Productive Arrangement between firms and other institutions. The theoretical basis that supports the study is the theory of economic development focused on the figure of the innovative entrepreneur and the institutional arrangement of the Tourism Friendship Route, in the Midwest of the state of Santa Catarina.

Also, in the context of the interaction of local tourism actors, through a qualitative case study, Cintra, Amâncio-Vieira and Costa (2016) investigate the configuration of the organizational field of tourism. From the stakeholder theory, the authors use the analytical categories "power", "urgency", and "legitimacy" as methodological support. However, when considering the gaps of this theory for the understanding of the organizational field, due to the difficulties (or fear) of its informants in the classification exercise of institutions according to the category of "power", they complement sociological institutionalism as a theoretical-analytical basis.

Based on the premise that the norms and regulations created and consolidated in society form a set of institutional forces that pressure organizations to seek legitimacy in their sector, Wilke and Rodrigues (2013) propose to examine the isomorphism in service organizations, in particular the hotel industry, to understand its legitimacy and the factors that determine its occurrence. The authors conclude that the sources of institutional pressure to legitimize a hotel organization stem from, one or a combination of, the use of managerial and technical manpower, compliance with imperative and optional legal requirements, and imitation of successful organizations.

Finally, on the theoretical level, Carvalho (2015) examines the context of formation of the public agenda for national tourism, based on issues that triggered the elaboration of tourism policies, the actors involved, and the factors that constrain this dynamics. On the theoretical level, by means of a literature review, Falaster, Zanin and Guerrazzi (2017) propose the institutional theory as a standard for destination image analysis and its relationship with tourists and the local population. Thus, they adopt the institutional concepts of "legitimacy", "isomorphism", "hybridization", and "categorization" as an instrument for analyzing strategies of destination image building.

4 METHODOLOGY

The research is descriptive-explanatory (Gil, 1995/2008). The mixed method was used to compile and analyze the textual information collected. Specifically, Content Analysis (CA) (Bardin, 1977) was used as a technique for the quantitative treatment, by categorizing, coding, and converting qualitative data-textual information available on websites-into numerical data by statistical descriptive processing in SPSS software.

It should be mentioned that the search for a systematic and safe method for analyzing communications dates back to antiquity and constitutes a field of philosophy: Hermeneutics (Gadamer, 1999). Specifically, in the field of scientific methodology, it is in the early twentieth century, in the USA, with Lasswell (1927), that CA was proto-analytically used (Campos, 2004; Silva & Fossá, 2015). According to Campos (2004), the contribution of Berelson and Lazarsfeld (1948) is also highlighted, adding, and systematizing the epistemological and methodological concerns of CA, relevant to the time.

However, only later, with the systematization of CA by Bardin (1977) in France, this technique is quickly popularized and becomes a world reference (Silva & Fossá, 2015). In addition to the epochs, regional (or national) contexts, and the authors involved, content analysis also has different aspects according to its epistemological influence, whether it is more positivistic, quantitative, deductive-verifying, or more interpretative, qualitative, inductive-constructive. As Moraes (1999, p. 3) points out:

Depending on the research approach used the goal setting can take two different directions. In a quantitative, deductive, hypothesis-based approach, the objectives are set out in advance in a very precise way. They are an essential part of the initial planning that precedes and guides the later phases of the research, especially the definition of data and the specific procedures of analysis. In a qualitative, constructive, or heuristic approach, this construction, at least in part, can occur throughout the process. In this approach, just as the categories may emerge throughout the study, the more specific orientation of the work, the more precisely the objectives, can be delineated as the research progresses. [...].

According to Campos (2004), while the operative logic of the former is by frequency or quasi-quantitative (i.e. by dividing common contents), the second form operates by implied relevance of units of analysis. Thus, in current debates this method has been used-or technique, depending on its role in the research, whether as a single or central method or as a complement to a battery of techniques (Triviños, 1987) - in other epistemic traditions, as the Marxist (critical) and constructivist (Mozzato & Grzybovski, 2011).

In view of such considerations in the present article, we used CA in a complementary way, only as a technique, in its original version, of the first phase, positivist, quantitative, deductive-verifying, being consistent with the quantitative research procedures adopted.

Specifically, given the difficulty of dealing with all the diversity of formal structures of tourism research (FSTR) in the same research, we decided heuristically using the existing formal research groups in the country, which were identified through the "Directory of Research Groups" of the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq).

This procedure was adopted based on an exploratory research carried out previously by Pimentel (2016), which identified that among 57 formal research structures linked to higher education institutions with educational offer in tourism, only 1 (the Center of Excellence in Tourism - CET, linked to the University of Brasília) had a different classification of the denomination "research group". Therefore, due to the representativeness of this type of structure in the country, it was chosen to focus on FSTR linked to the Directory of Research Groups³ platform of the Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq). Thus, data collection was mainly secondary and performed in two steps, as described in Table 1.

Table 1
Description of data collection procedures.

Data Collection	Collection date	Search Terms and Filters (research made in Portuguese)	Total groups identified	Total CVs identified1,2	Start and end of CV collection
1st step	January 24, 2017	"tourism" ​​Knowledge Area: Applied Social Sciences; Area: tourism	163	238	January 30 - February 10, 2017
2nd step	March 13, 2017	"Tourism", "hospitality", "environment", "geography", "gastronomy" No other filter types were applied at this time.	312	110	April 1 - May 25, 2017

• Notes: 1 The CVs of leaders and vice-leaders of the groups were collected.
• 2 Researchers can act as leader or vice-leader in more than one group.
• Source: the authors.

Initially, 475 groups were identified, of which 241 (50.73% of the total sample) were multidisciplinary structures, or that originated in other areas of knowledge with at least one research line in tourism, while 235 (49.47%) were specialized in tourism. It is worth clarifying that the classification "specialized in the field of tourism" followed two criteria: (1) that the terms related to tourism were explicit in the name of the group; and/or (2) that all the research lines of the group are related to tourism topics.

It was established as criterion for the selection of the constituent groups of the sample analyzed those that were specialized in tourism and had been created until December 31, 2016, which resulted in a total of 234 groups.

To identify and analyze the production of the groups, in addition to the data provided in the platform of the CNPq directory, the research information was selected in the résumés of the coordinators of the research groups.

In this way, the analytical categories and their operational definition regarding the characterization of the research groups are presented in Frame 2.

Frame 2:
Summary of the instrument for collecting data from research groups.

Theoretical category	Analytical category	Operational definition
FSTR	HEI linked	public or private
	Distribution in the territory¹	State (federal entity) and geographical location in the national territory
	Age	Year of creation of the FSTR
	Thematic Areas of Research²	(1) Agency (2) Health Sciences (3) Human Sciences, (4) Social Sciences, (5) Communication and Marketing, (6) Development, sustainability, environment, (7) Economy & Management, (8) State and Public Management (9) Events, (10) Gastronomy, (11) Geography and Spatial Planning, (12) Guide, (13) Hospitality, (14) Leisure, (15) Heritage, (16) Tourism Transport, (17) International Tourism, (18) Other topics
	Broad field of ​​knowledge³	(1) exact sciences and earth, (2) biological sciences, (3) engineering, (4) agricultural sciences, (5) applied social sciences, (6) human sciences, (7) linguistics, language and arts, (8) others
	Human Resources	Researcher, student, technician, international collaborator
	Situation of the participant	Former or current member
	Training of participants	Last member training

• Notes: ¹ According to the division of IBGE (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics) established since 1941: North, South, East, West, Midwest. The Federal District was considered a region separated from the Midwest because of its importance as a political center of the country.
• ²
  Thematic areas were based on the classification of the research protocol proposed by Pimentel and Paula (2014).
• ³
  Defined according to the classification established by the National Council of Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq). See: "Table of areas of knowledge". Available at http://www.cnpq.br/documents/10157/186158/TabeladeAreasdoConhecimento.pdf. Accessed on September 24, 2017.
• Source: Adapted from Pimentel and Paula (2014).

Finally, it should be pointed out that, because this study deals with an ex post facto longitudinal research, there is no possibility of extracting information from events that no longer exist, unless they have left formal records, for example, through some previous research, which, however, does not occur in the case under study. Therefore, this research sought to analyze the FSTR "survivor" population (here considered analytically as the research groups formally registered in CNPq). Of course, this implies as a limitation the logical possibility of not including in this analysis some FSTR that existed in the past and no longer exists. However, given the length of the study, of all cases of the population (census), the temporal coverage of more than half a century (about 60 years) and the pattern of institutional configuration of the groups whose emergence-in greater quantitative expression-only occurs after the 2000s (i.e. less than 20 years ago); we consider that although there are cases not contemplated by the research, they will tend to be minimal (perhaps 5% or less), which does not invalidate the effort represented by the study. Thus, these details are some of the possibilities for the continuation of this agenda of studies on the history of education and research in tourism in Brazil, as well as the events and other conditions that have resulted in the formation of the structures currently existing in this field that can be resumed by these or other authors dedicated to the subject.

5 ANALYSIS OF RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 General characteristics of the insertion of tourism research in the university environment in Brazil

In an earlier survey, Pimentel (2016a) observed that in Brazil a set of 379 HEIs offer training courses in tourism, of which 586 (73.52%) are of private law, while 211 (26.47%) are public institutions. These HEIs are linked to the 234 research groups, which make up the sample analyzed. Specifically, 202 (86.3%) of the FSTRs are connected to a public institution, while 32 (13.7%) structures are connected to a private HEI (Figure 2).

Figure 2
Legal Regime of Higher Education Institutions of origin of FSTR

5.2 FSTR creation and expansion framework

As for the creation and expansion of research groups at the national level, until the 2000s, tourism predominated as a line of research in the existing groups. Specifically, the first research group specialized in tourism in Brazil was registered in 1993, the second in 1995, and the third in 1997.

In 2000, these entities began expanding and since 2006 there has been a continuous spread of research groups specialized in tourism. In the following 5 years, 83 groups are formed. In the first six years of the 2010s, another 122 groups emerged.

Figure 7 shows the temporal expansion of the institutionalization of scientific research in tourism in the country through formal research structures. Thus, two types of groups are differentiated, those that have tourism research line (LT), whose first evidence dates back to 1964; from the appearance of the specific groups in tourism (TT) the LT structures diminish their representativeness, although they are observed until the data collection date.

Figure 3
Temporal expansion of groups with tourism research line and specialized tourism groups (N = 234).

Regarding the spatial distribution in Brazil, associated with the date of creation, the emergence of FSRTs was relatively constant from 2006 onwards in all the regions of the country, however, in the Southeast and Northeast there is a variety of predominant groups, compared to other regions, while in all of these areas there are periods of decrease and increases in the creation of new groups (Table 2).

Table 2:
Year of creation by FSTR location area (N = 234)

		FSTR location area						Total
		Midwest	Federal District	Northeast	North	Southeast	South
Year of creation	1993	0	0	1	0	0	0	1
	1995	1	0	0	0	1	0	2
	1997	0	0	0	0	0	1	1
	2000	0	0	1	0	0	1	2
	2001	0	0	0	0	0	1	1
	2002	1	0	4	1	2	3	11
	2003	0	0	0	0	0	2	2
	2004	0	0	0	0	2	1	3
	2005	0	0	3	0	2	1	6
	2006	0	0	8	3	5	1	17
	2007	1	0	2	0	4	0	7
	2008	2	0	2	2	11	1	18
	2009	2	1	6	0	6	3	18
	2010	2	2	8	2	3	6	23
	2011	1	1	3	0	5	4	14
	2012	1	1	8	0	6	3	19
	2013	0	1	7	1	8	4	21
	2014	3	2	10	1	6	6	28
	2015	2	1	1	0	12	1	17
	2016	0	0	6	2	12	3	23
Total		16	9	70	12	85	42	234

• Source: based on survey data.

Another general indicator of differentiation of the formal research system is the relationship between the distribution of the thematic areas of the FSTR and the Brazilian regions. In this sense, in the Southeast and Northeast regions there are more diversity of subjects studied. Specifically, in the Southeast, in a total of 25 thematic areas identified, of which together are observed in 84 FSTR; the social sciences and tourism planning are the most frequent, with 13 and 12 occurrences, respectively (Table 3).

Table 3:
Thematic areas of the FSTR in the Southeast region

Total thematic areas on the Southeast region: 84
Thematic areas	Total for each theme
Agronomy, Architecture, Transportation, Tourism	2
Events, Healthy Sciences, Communication and Marketing, Education, Engineering, Gastronomy, History, Psychology, International Tourism, Rural Tourism, Agency	1
Human Science, Heritage	3
Social Sciences	13
Economics & Management	7
Leisure, Sports	4
Geography, Environment	5
Hospitality	9
Tourism planning	12

• Source: based on survey data.

The northeastern region is the second with more observations, with 21 thematic areas identified, distributed by 70 FSTR; the subject of tourism planning is also the most frequent (Table 4).

Table 4:
FSTR Thematic Areas in the Northeast Region

Total thematic areas on the Northeast region: 70
Thematic areas	Total for each theme
Agronomy, Food, Health Sciences, Sports, Psychology, Tourism, International Tourism, Rural Tourism, Agency	1
Human Science, Education, Heritage, History	2
Social Sciences, Hospitality	7
Tourism planning	17
Communication & Marketing	3
Economics & Management	4
Gastronomy, Environment	5
Geography	6

• Source: based on survey data.

On the other hand, in the South region an intermediate frequency is observed, i.e., of the 42 FSTR observations, 16 thematic areas were identified, of which tourism planning remains the most frequent. In addition, the Midwest (16), North (12), and Federal District (9) regions have few FSTRs.

Table 5:
. FSTR Thematic Areas on the Midwest, Federal District, North and South

Total topics by Region	Thematic areas	Total for each theme
Midwest region: 16	Anthropology, Economics & Management	1
	Gastronomy, Geography	3
	Environment, Heritage	2
	Tourism Planning	4
Federal District: 9	Agronomy, Anthropology, Human Sciences, Gastronomy, Hospitality, Environment, Heritage, Tourism planning, Transportation	1
North region: 12	Human Science, Leisure, Geography, Anthropology	1
	Economics & Management	2
	Heritage, Tourism Planning	3
South region: 42	Food, Anthropology, Health Sciences, Social Sciences, Communication & Marketing, Education, Wine tourism, Leisure, History, Heritage	1
	Economics & Management	8
	Gastronomy, Hospitality	4
	Geography, Environment	3
	Tourism Planning	10

• Source: based on survey data.

5.3 Composition of research structures according to their members

The sum of individuals linked to the analyzed structures is composed of 2,324 Brazilian researchers, 27 foreigner researchers, 2,294 students, and 65 technicians (Table 6). Among this total 3,463 had an active status in the FSTR, while 1,252 were ex-members.

Table 6:
Position in the group according to activity status (N = 4,715)

		Status		Total
		Active member	Ex-member
Position	Foreigner research	27	0	27
	Student	1,466	828	2,294
	Researcher	1,905	424	2,329
	Technician	65	0	65
Total		3,463	1,252	4,715*

• Note: * This represents the sum by number of members of each analyzed research group. However, it is assumed that there are individuals participating in more than one group, and therefore they have been counted more than once.
• Source: based on survey data.

In relation to this indicator, we emphasize that researchers have an essential role in the groups, since they are the ones that develop the main activities on the FSTR. Foreign researchers represent the insertion of these systems in the international academic environment of tourism, which impacts, for example, the introduction of new research topics or different behaviors on the Brazilian context, due to the possibility of interaction and learning.

It should be noted that among the 27 foreigners identified, 4 represent duplicate cases, i.e., they are individuals who participate in more than one FSTR. Then considering the 23 individuals identified as foreign researchers linked to an FSTR, the Portuguese nationality (13 researchers) predominates, while Mexicans (4) and Spaniards (3) are, respectively, the second and third most frequent cases. Argentina, the United States, and Italy complete the list of countries of origin of foreign researchers.

In this sense, the attractiveness of Brazilian FSTR seems to be affected by language barriers, since 56.52% of the observations are related to individuals who are also natives of the Portuguese language. However, Mexico, Spain, and Argentina, which are Spanish-speaking countries, represent the second group of countries where connections are observed, while the United States and Italy have few occurrences, only 2 cases.

It is also noted that the presence of students in the groups is important for the formation of new generations of researchers and, of course, the renewal of the structures. Finally, the technicians have a relevant role, since, in general, in Brazil, these individuals are more actively involved in other sectors, such as public managers (public administration technicians) or the market (consultancies).

We also tried to characterize these members of the FSTR according to their highest level of education. For this analysis only the group of researchers, technicians, and foreigners were observed. Thus, in Figure 13, the doctoral degree stands out among the researchers, although it represents only half of the observations, reinforcing the idea of ​​"youth of the field" regarding the degree of specialization of their subjects. Master’s degree holders are also significant, making up 36.78% of the cases.

On the other hand, it is also worth noting that 4.01% of the researchers only completed the undergraduate level and 0.83% the technical level, while the specializations/MBA represent 7.34% of these observations.

Table 7
Level of education of the members of the groups (N = 2012)

Highest degree earned by FSTR members	Foreign researcher	Researcher	Technician	Total
Doctoral degree	20	979	1	1,000
Technician	0	16	3	19
Specialization/MBA	0	141	22	163
Bachelor’s degree	1	77	13	91
Master’s degree	5	706	28	739
Total	26	1,919	67	2,012

• Note: 2,012 cases were considered valid, some cases can refer to the same subject more than once.
• Source: based on survey data.

In general, non-specific training in tourism prevails at all levels-technical, bachelor, specialization, master, doctoral, and postdoctoral degrees. In a total of 1,274 observations, just on the doctoral level, 7.77% of this total represents a specific training in tourism. On the other hand, at the bachelor’s level, the specific formations in tourism represent 28.89% of the observations, indicating a greater academic offer at this level (Table 8).

Table 8
Training in tourism, according to education levels (N = 7,650).

		Training in tourism			Total
		n_tur*	tur**	NA
Level of training	Specialization	1,254	313	5	1,572
	Doctoral degree	1,175	99	0	1,274
	Technician	62	38	215	315
	Bachelor’s degree	1,667	681	9	2,357
	Master’s degree	1,472	309	0	1,781
	Post-doctoral	0	0	351	351
Total		5,630	1,440	580	7,650

• Note: * n_tur: training in other areas; ** tur: specific training in tourism.
• Source: based on survey data.

Of the 7,650 individuals, only 16.65% (1,274 observations) hold a doctoral degree, while 4.54% (351 cases) have completed postdoctoral-level training, representing a level of specialized knowledge in terms of academic research, yet little observed in the country. This situation also contributes to the structuring of the academic subfield of tourism regarding the disposition of the agents, their interests, and the constraints that motivate their social positioning.

5.4. Discussion of Results about the Institutionalization of FSTR in Brazil

From the analyzed data, three phases were identified in the process of institutionalization of the formal research structures specialized in the field of tourism in Brazil -habitualization, objectification, and sedimentation- according to Berger and Luckmann (1966; 2004) sociological institutionalism.

Initially, some tourism research lines were created, beginning in 1964. In this decade a new reality began to emerge in Brazil. In 1961, the Tourism Division was created in the Ministry of Industry and Commerce, to examine and launch the development of domestic tourism. In 1966, the first National Tourism Policy was proposed, and the National Tourism Council was created.

In view of these changes, the political-institutional context offers a favorable environment for the beginning of the professionalization of tourism in the country. The institutional changes highlighted, as a result of a change in the importance given to tourism by the political power, marked the beginning of a period of emergence of tourism education in the country. In this first phase, between 1964 and 2001, there is a phase of habitualization, with the demand for the creation of higher education programs for the training of professionals who work in this activity. The expansion of the subject "tourism" in the academic environment, led to its insertion as a line of research in existing structures, or in the ones that emerged during this period, and the first groups dedicated exclusively to this field appeared in the 1990s.

The second phase, Objectivation, is marked in the period from 2002 to 2009 by the consolidation of tourism studies through the formation of a great number of specific research groups, unlike the previous years. It is noteworthy that in this decade there was a process of expansion of technical and higher education, what was reflected in the creation of technical and undergraduate courses in tourism in the country. In this context, since 2005, a large contingent of recent undergraduates in tourism-related areas enter the academic environment-as teachers or graduate students-leading to a significant increase in the creation of FSTR and the diversification of the topics studied by these structures. Thus, tourism begins to specialize in the country (Trigo, 2003).

Finally, from 2010 onwards, a sedimentation period of FSTR is observed. Currently, the contingent of graduates of tourism courses, already with masters and doctoral degrees, and inserted in HEIs as teacher-researchers, begin to form new generations. In this current phase, groups consolidate and become reference in the academic subfield of tourism. This is the case of the structures linked to HEIs that offer graduate programs in tourism, in the Southeast, Northeast, and South regions, which are linked to researchers with the highest recognition in the area, in terms of bibliographic citations. Thus, the ideas produced in a specific context are reproduced throughout the field of national tourism. This institutionalized knowledge functions as a social determinant, because over time it reinforces the idea that research linked to such HEIs where knowledge of the field is produced is central to academic thinking and reflection on tourism.

From this description it is evident that the process of institutionalization of the formal research in tourism in Brazil is path dependent on priorities of the phase of habitualization, when the integration of tourism in the university environment occurs, where vocational training was a priority, as well as the concentration of FSTR in educational institutions, in terms of access, quantity and quality in the southeast region, and in the southern region less frequently.

On the other hand, the actions taken by the federal government for the expansion of university education in Brazil can be considered an external element of great influence in the composition of the current tourism research system. Promotion of inclusion of many students in HEI, and the demand for new teachers in this process, led to the formation of new teacher-researchers that started to work in research groups, as well as created new FSTR. This led to a reconfiguration of the system, which was in its objectification phase. Thus, from 2006, FSTR's creation in the Northeast region, with a rapid expansion, has been increased, together with a similar process, albeit to a lesser extent, in the south and midwest regions, which contributed to the current FSTR sedimentation phase. In this sense, although a center of production and reproduction of knowledge concentrates in a reduced number of FSTR (the pioneers in the creation of higher courses in tourism), which maintains the coercion of the thought on tourism linked to such FSTR, a new scenario is emerging, where the possibility of new interpretations on tourism may occur.

The recent level of training of the researchers and the high dispersion in terms of the thematic lines and specialties of these individuals that are components of the FSTR in the three levels of training can also be a contributing factor for the maintenance of a thematic path in the economics and management fields in quantitative and territorial terms.

6 CONCLUDING REMARKS

The question raised earlier whether tourism can be considered an institutionalized field of knowledge in Brazil was a motivating component of the present analysis. In order to answer this question, the institutionalization process-habitualization, objectification and sedimentation-of the Formal Structures of Tourism Research/FSTR in Brazil was analyzed using the institutional theory, with a sociological approach (Berger & Luckmann, 1966; 2004).

From the data of the 234 research structures, existing between 1964 and 2016, it was possible to identify and classify into three phases that mark the process of institutionalization of FSTR in Brazil; 1) in the first phase (1964-2001), Habitualization, higher education courses were created for training in tourism, the subject "tourism" spread in the academic environment and its insertion as a research line was observed; 2) in the second phase, Objectivization (2002-2009), the subject was consolidated through the creation, in large numbers, of specific research groups; and 3) in the third phase (2010-present), FSTR is established, the contingent of tourism graduates with master's and doctoral degrees, and inserted in HEIs as researcher-teachers, are beginning to train the new generations.

However, when considered in detail, the existing FSTRs in the Brazilian academic tourism field seem to be still in an initial phase of juxtaposition and spontaneous adaptation to the physical and social space in which they are situated, without further developments. Thus, they seem, in fact, to have completed the phase of habitualization, in which the subject was perceived as something important and brought to the political-institutional agenda; and to be in the process of completing the following phase, objectification, through the expansion of FSTR through the involvement of individuals who identified themselves with this activity, marking at least two generational periods in the research area. The first one, in which there are few individuals, with more diverse formations, but related to the tourism, and territorially located in the southeastern region of the country. The second period is marked by expansion, of individuals inserted in these contexts, of researched topics, of the creation of structures throughout the five Brazilian regions. On the other hand, the influence on the production of knowledge is centered on first generation agents of these structures, which determine ways of reflecting and acting regarding tourism in the national academic context. Therefore, full institutionalization still seems to require efforts towards the intergenerational transmission of objective structures and symbolic references of knowledge generation in the field of tourism in Brazil.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

To the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development / CNPq and the UFJF Research Dean for the granting of PIBIC and BIC scholarships, respectively, in connection with the projects (nº 38856 / PROPP / UFJF) “Institutionalization of the Academic Tourism Subfield in Brazil : an analysis of the internal dynamics of tourism research centers and their contribution to public policy formulation ”, 2017-2018, and their continuity (no 45821 / PROPP / UFJF)“ For a Sociology of Tourism Knowledge: the process of institutionalization Formal Tourism Research Structures (EFIT) in Brazil ”, 2018-2019, and to undergraduate and graduate students who collaborated in data collection (in particular Juliana Cristina Simião Barbosa), or in the execution of some phase of the research; and to the reviewers of this journal that allowed the revision of this work in relation to its initially presented version.

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• 7
  Peer-reviewed article.

• 1
  In search of the portal "publications of tourism", a site that brings together all the scientific journals in the country, only 10 results were found for the search term "institutional theory", 6 of them exact results and 4 additional Boolean results, in the period from 2010 to 2018, within a population of 4,674 articles analyzed. Available at http://www.each.usp.br/turismo/publicacoesdeturismo/. Accessed on 01/22/2019
• 2
  In fact, all perspectives assume starting points and have a particular modus operandi when prioritizing certain elements of analysis in the formation and maintenance of a particular social order, being, perhaps, more complementary than actual alternatives. To a certain extent, therefore, we will dialogue with the sociological perspective of the study of institutions, by assuming certain premises - for example, that institutions are socially constructed, i.e. the product of human action (Berger & Luckmann, 1966). However, our main argument is that there is a path dependence of tourism research in relation to the empirical constitution of the formal structures of tourism research, and therefore, it is based on historical-institutional theory.
• 3
  Retrieved from http://dgp.cnpq.br/dgp/faces/consulta/consulta_parametrizada.jsf

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  25 Nov 2019
• Date of issue
  Sep-Dec 2019

History

• Received
  05 Aug 2018
• Accepted
  06 Feb 2019