Memória de trabalho e desempenho em tarefas de L2

Fontanini, Ingrid; Weissheimer, Janaina; Bergsleithner, Joara Martin; Perucci, Magareth; D'Ely, Raquel

doi:10.1590/S1984-63982005000200009

Resumos

O presente artigo examina se a natureza da relação entre memória de trabalho e desempenho em tarefas de língua estrangeira (L2) é geral ou específica. Uma bateria de quatro testes de memória de trabalho em inglês e quatro tarefas de desempenho foi aplicada em doze estudantes universitários de nível elementar em inglês como L2. A análise mostrou uma correlação significativa entre a medida geral de memória de trabalho e as tarefas de leitura, sintaxe e produção oral. Quanto às tarefas de memória de trabalho específicas, a medida de amplitude de leitura correlacionou significativamente com a tarefa de sintaxe, e a medida de amplitude oral correlacionou tanto com as tarefas de produção oral, quanto com as de sintaxe. Os resultados do presente estudo sinalizam para uma natureza híbrida da relação entre memória de trabalho e desempenho em tarefas em L2.

This paper examines whether the nature of the relationship between working memory and the performance in L2 tasks is domain-free or task-specific. A set of four working memory tests in English and four L2 performance tasks was applied to twelve undergraduate beginner students of English as a second language. Correlational analyses showed significant correlation between the operation-word span test and the reading, syntactic and speaking tasks. As for the specific span tests, the reading span test correlated significantly with the syntactic task, and the speaking span test correlated both with the speech production task and the syntactic task. The results of the present study point to a hybrid nature of the relationship between working memory capacity and L2 task performance.

Memória de trabalho e desempenho em tarefas de L2

Ingrid Fontanini; Janaina Weissheimer; Joara Martin Bergsleithner; Magareth Perucci; Raquel D'Ely

Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina

RESUMO

O presente artigo examina se a natureza da relação entre memória de trabalho e desempenho em tarefas de língua estrangeira (L2) é geral ou específica. Uma bateria de quatro testes de memória de trabalho em inglês e quatro tarefas de desempenho foi aplicada em doze estudantes universitários de nível elementar em inglês como L2. A análise mostrou uma correlação significativa entre a medida geral de memória de trabalho e as tarefas de leitura, sintaxe e produção oral. Quanto às tarefas de memória de trabalho específicas, a medida de amplitude de leitura correlacionou significativamente com a tarefa de sintaxe, e a medida de amplitude oral correlacionou tanto com as tarefas de produção oral, quanto com as de sintaxe. Os resultados do presente estudo sinalizam para uma natureza híbrida da relação entre memória de trabalho e desempenho em tarefas em L2.

ABSTRACT

This paper examines whether the nature of the relationship between working memory and the performance in L2 tasks is domain-free or task-specific. A set of four working memory tests in English and four L2 performance tasks was applied to twelve undergraduate beginner students of English as a second language. Correlational analyses showed significant correlation between the operation-word span test and the reading, syntactic and speaking tasks. As for the specific span tests, the reading span test correlated significantly with the syntactic task, and the speaking span test correlated both with the speech production task and the syntactic task. The results of the present study point to a hybrid nature of the relationship between working memory capacity and L2 task performance.

Texto completo do artigo disponível apenas em PDF.

Article full text available only in PDF format.

ANDERSON, J. R. Cognitive psychology and its implications New York: Freeman, 1990.
ANDERSON, J. R. Learning and memory: an integrated approach. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1995.
ASHCRAFT, M. Human memory and cognition. New York: Harper Collins, 1994.
ATKINSON, R. C.; SHIFFRIN, R. M. Human Memory: A proposed system and its control processes. In: SPENCE, K. W. (Ed.). The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory New York: Academic Press, v. 2, p. 89-195, 1968.
AOYAMA, K. Perception of syllable-initial and syllable-final nasals in English by Korean and Japanese speakers. Second Language Research, v. 19, p. 251-265, 2003.
BADDELEY, A. D. Working memory Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986.
BADDELEY, A. D. Human memory: Theory and practice Hove, UK: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1990.
BADDELEY, A. D. Is working memory working? Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 44A, p. 1-31, 1992.
v. 8, p. 47-89, 1974.
BAPTISTA, B. Aspectos da Teoria Cognitiva: Aplicações à aquisição/aprendizagem e ao ensino da pronúncia de línguas estrangeiras Anais IV congresso Brasileiro de Linguística Aplicada. p. 495-501, 1995.
BERQUIST, B. Memory models applied to L2 comprehension: a search for common ground. In: TAILLEFER, G.; PUGH, A. K. (Ed.). Lectire à l'Université: Langues maternelle, seconde et étrangère. Reading in the University: First, second and foreign languages. Toulouse: Presses de l'Université des Sciences Sociales de Toulouse, p.29-44, 1997.
BROOKSHIRE, R. H.; NICHOLAS, L. E. Comprehension of directly stated main ideas and details in discourse by brain-damaged and non-brain-damaged listeners. Brain and Language, v. 21, p. 21-36, 1984.
BYGATE, M. Speaking. In: The Cambridge Guide to Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages, p. 14-20. Ed. Carter, R. & Nunan, D. Chapter 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
BYGATE, M. Effects of task repetition on the structure and control of oral language. In: Bygate, M.; Skehan, P.; Swain, M. (Ed.). Researching Pedagogic Tasks Second Language Learning, Teaching and Testing. Applied Linguistics and Language Study London: Longman, 2001b.
CANTOR, J.; ENGLE, R. W. Working memory capacity as long-term memory activation: an individual differences approach. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, v. 5, p. 1101-1114, 1993.
CAPLAN, D. Language. Structure, processing, and disorders Cambridge: MIT Press, 1992.
COWAN, N. Attention and memory: an integrated framework Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.
CROOKES, G. Planning and interlanguage variation. Studies in second language Acquisition, v. 11, p. 367-383, 1989.
CRYSTAL, D. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge University Press, 1995.
DANEMAN, M.; CARPENTER, P. A. Individual differences in working memory and reading. Journal of verbal learning and verbal behavior, v. 19, p. 450-466, 1980.
ELLIS, N. C.; SINCLAIR, S. G. Working memory in the acquisition of vocabulary and syntax: putting language in good order. The quarterly journal of experimental psychology, 49A (1), p. 234-250, 1996.
ELLIS, R. Interlanguage variability in narrative discourse: Style shifting in the use of the past tense. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, v. 9, p. 12-20, 1987.
ELLIS, R. Task-based language learning and teaching Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
ENGLE, R. W.; ORANSKY, N. The evolution from short-term to working memory: multi-store to dynamic models of temporary storage. In: STERNBERG, R. J. (Ed.). The nature of cognition Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1997. p. 515-555.
ENGLE, R. W.; LAUGHLIN, J. E.; TUHOLSKI, S. W.; CONWAY, A. R. A. Working memory, short-term memory and general fluid intelligence: A latent variable approach. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Genera, 1999.
ENGLE, R. W.; KANE, M. J.; TUHOLSKI, S. W. Individual differences in working memory capacity and what they tell us about controlled attention, general fluid intelligence and functions of the prefrontal cortex. In: MIYAKE, A.; SHAH, P. (Ed.). Models of working memory: mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999. p. 102-134.
ENGLE, R. W.; CANTOR, J.; CARULLO, J. J. Individual differences in working memory and comprehension: a test of four hypotheses. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, v. 18, p. 972-992, 1992.
ESCUDERO, P. The perception of English vowel contrasts: Acoustic cue reliance in the development of new contrasts. In: James, A.; Leather (Ed.). New Sounds 2000: Preceedings of the Fourth International Symposium of the Acquisition of Second-Language Speech (University of Amsterdam, September 2000). Klagenfurt: University of Klagenfurt, 2002. p. 122-131.
FORTKAMP, M. B. M. Working memory capacity and L2 speech production: an exploratory study 2000. Tese (Doutorado em Inglês e Literatura Correspondente) - UFSC, Florianópolis.
FOSTER, P.; SKEHAN, P. The influence of planning and task type on second language performance. Studies in Second language acquisition, v. 18, p. 299-323, 1996.
FOSTER, P. Rules and Routines: A consideration of their role in the task-based language production of native and non-native speakers. In: BYGATE, M.; SKEHAN, P.; SWAIN, M. (Ed.). Researching pedagogic tasks - Second Language Learning and Testing Longman, 2001.
FREED, B. F. What makes us think that students who study abroad become fluent? In: FREED, F. B. (Ed.). Second Language Acquisition in a Study Abroad Context Philadelphia: John Benjamins North America, 1995.
GREEN, D. W. Control, activation, and resource: A framework and a model for the control of speech in Bilinguals. Brain and language, v. 27, p. 210-223. Academic Press, 1986.
HARRINGTON, M. Working memory capacity as a constraint on L2 development. In: HARRIS, R. J. (Ed.). Cognitive processing in bilinguals Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1992.
HARRINGTON, M.; SAWYER, M. L2 working memory capacity and L2 reading skill. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, v. 14, p. 25-38, 1993.
HEWINGS, M. Pronunciation Tasks Cambridge University Press, 1993.
HUBER, W. Text comprehension and production in aphasia: Analysis in terms of micro and macroprocessing. In: JOANETTE, Y.; BROWNELL, H. H. (Ed.). Discourse ability and brain damage: Theoretical and empirical perspectives Chestnut Hill, MA: Springer-Verlag, 1990.
ILLES, J.; FRANCIS, W. S.; DESMOND, J. E.; GABRIELI, J. D. E.; GLOVER, G. H.; POLDRACK, R.; LEE, C. J.; WAGNER, A. D. Convergent cortical representation of semantic processing in bilinguals. Brain and Language, v. 70, p. 347-363, 1999.
JUST, M. A.; CARPENTER, P. A. A theory of reading: from eye fixations to comprehension. Psychological Review, v. 87, p. 329-354, 1980.
JUST, M.; CARPENTER, P. The Psychology of Reading and Language Comprehension. Massachusetts: Library of Congress Cataloging-in- Publication data, 1987.
JUST, M. A.; CARPENTER, P. A. A capacity theory of comprehension: Individual differences in working memory. Psychological Review, v. 99, p. 122-149, 1992.
KINTSCH, W.; VAN DIJK, T. Toward a model of text comprehension and production. Psychological Review, v. 85, n. 5, p. 363-394, 1978.
LAPOINT, L. Neurogenic Disorders of Communication. In: Minifio, F. (Ed.). Introduction to Communication Sciences and Disorders San Diego: Singular, 1994. p. 351-397.
LENNON, P. Investigating Fluency in EFL: A Quantitative Approach. Language Learning, v. 40, n. 3, p. 387-417, 1999.
LEVELT, W. J. M. Speaking: From intention to articulation Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. 1981. Chapters 1-2.
MEHNERT, U. The effects of different lengths of time for planning on second language performance. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, v. 20, p. 83-108, 1998.
MIYAKE, A.; FRIEDMAN, N. P. Individual differences in second language proficiency: working memory as language aptitude. In: HEALY, A. F.; BOURNE, Jr., L. E. (Ed.). Foreign language learning: Psycholinguistic studies on training and retention Mahawah, N. J: Lawrence Erbaum, 1998. p. 339-364.
OBLER, L.; GJERLOW, K. Language and the brain Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
ORTEGA, L. Planning and focus on form in L2 oral performance. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, v. 21, p. 109-148, 1999.
PARADIS, M. Differential Use of Cerebral Mechanisms in Bilinguals. In: BANICH, Marie T.; MACK, Molly (Ed.). Mind, Brain, and Language Mahwah: LEA, 2003.
PAWLEY, A.; SYDER, F. H. Two puzzles for linguistic theory: nativelike selection and nativelike fluency. In: RICHARDS, J. C.; SCHMIDT, R. W. (Ed.). Language and Communication, New York: Longman, 1983. p. 191-226.
PERFETTI, C. A.; LESGOLD, A. M. Discourse comprehension and sources of individual differences. In: JUST, M. A.; CARPENTER, P. A. (Ed.). Cognitive processes in comprehension Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1977.
PHELPS, E. A. Brain versus behavioral studies of cognition. In: STERNBERG, R. J. (Ed.). The nature of cognition Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1999.
RIGGENBACH, H. Toward an Understanding of Fluency: a Microanalysis of Nonnative Speaker Conversations. Discourse Processes, v. 14, p. 423-441, 1991.
SCHMIDT, R. The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics, v. 11, p.17-46, 1990.
SIRIGU, A.; COHEN, I.; ZALLA, T.; PRADAT-DIEHL, P.; VAN EECKHOUT, P.; GRAFMAN, J.; AGID, V. Distinct frontal regions for processing sentence syntax and story grammar. Cortex, v. 14, p. 771-778, 1998.
SKEHAN, P.; FOSTER, P. Task type and task processing as influences on foreign language performance. In: SKEHAN, P. (Ed). Working papers in English Language Teaching, 3, 1995. p. 139-188.
SKEHAN, P. A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.
SKEHAN, P. A Framework for the Implementation of Task-based Instruction. Applied Linguistics, v. 17, n. 1. Oxford University Press, 1996.
SKEHAN, P.; FOSTER, P. Task type and task processing as influences on foreign language performance. In: SKEHAN, P. (Ed.). Working papers in English Language, 1995.
SPRINGER, S. P.; DEUTSCH, G. Left brain, right brain: Perspectives from neuroscience New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 1998. Chs. 1, p. 9-29, and 7, p.160-198.
TEMPLE, L. Disfluencies in Learning Speech. In Learner Speech. Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, v. 15, n.2, p. 29-44, 1992.
TOMITCH, L. M. B. Reading: Text organization perception and working memory capacity Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, 1995.
TOMITCH, L. M. B. Individual Differences in the Text Organization Perception and Working Memory Capacity. Revista da ANPOLL, n. 2, p. 71-93, 1996.

Datas de Publicação

Publicação nesta coleção
28 Jan 2013
Data do Fascículo
2005

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

[1] ANDERSON, J. R. Cognitive psychology and its implications New York: Freeman, 1990.

[2] ANDERSON, J. R. Learning and memory: an integrated approach. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1995.

[3] ASHCRAFT, M. Human memory and cognition. New York: Harper Collins, 1994.

[4] ATKINSON, R. C.; SHIFFRIN, R. M. Human Memory: A proposed system and its control processes. In: SPENCE, K. W. (Ed.). The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory New York: Academic Press, v. 2, p. 89-195, 1968.

[5] AOYAMA, K. Perception of syllable-initial and syllable-final nasals in English by Korean and Japanese speakers. Second Language Research, v. 19, p. 251-265, 2003.

[6] BADDELEY, A. D. Working memory Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986.

[7] BADDELEY, A. D. Human memory: Theory and practice Hove, UK: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1990.

[8] BADDELEY, A. D. Is working memory working? Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 44A, p. 1-31, 1992.

[9] v. 8, p. 47-89, 1974.

[10] BAPTISTA, B. Aspectos da Teoria Cognitiva: Aplicações à aquisição/aprendizagem e ao ensino da pronúncia de línguas estrangeiras Anais IV congresso Brasileiro de Linguística Aplicada. p. 495-501, 1995.

[11] BERQUIST, B. Memory models applied to L2 comprehension: a search for common ground. In: TAILLEFER, G.; PUGH, A. K. (Ed.). Lectire à l'Université: Langues maternelle, seconde et étrangère. Reading in the University: First, second and foreign languages. Toulouse: Presses de l'Université des Sciences Sociales de Toulouse, p.29-44, 1997.

[12] BROOKSHIRE, R. H.; NICHOLAS, L. E. Comprehension of directly stated main ideas and details in discourse by brain-damaged and non-brain-damaged listeners. Brain and Language, v. 21, p. 21-36, 1984.

[13] BYGATE, M. Speaking. In: The Cambridge Guide to Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages, p. 14-20. Ed. Carter, R. & Nunan, D. Chapter 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.

[14] BYGATE, M. Effects of task repetition on the structure and control of oral language. In: Bygate, M.; Skehan, P.; Swain, M. (Ed.). Researching Pedagogic Tasks Second Language Learning, Teaching and Testing. Applied Linguistics and Language Study London: Longman, 2001b.

[15] CANTOR, J.; ENGLE, R. W. Working memory capacity as long-term memory activation: an individual differences approach. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, v. 5, p. 1101-1114, 1993.

[16] CAPLAN, D. Language. Structure, processing, and disorders Cambridge: MIT Press, 1992.

[17] COWAN, N. Attention and memory: an integrated framework Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.

[18] CROOKES, G. Planning and interlanguage variation. Studies in second language Acquisition, v. 11, p. 367-383, 1989.

[19] CRYSTAL, D. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge University Press, 1995.

[20] DANEMAN, M.; CARPENTER, P. A. Individual differences in working memory and reading. Journal of verbal learning and verbal behavior, v. 19, p. 450-466, 1980.

[21] ELLIS, N. C.; SINCLAIR, S. G. Working memory in the acquisition of vocabulary and syntax: putting language in good order. The quarterly journal of experimental psychology, 49A (1), p. 234-250, 1996.

[22] ELLIS, R. Interlanguage variability in narrative discourse: Style shifting in the use of the past tense. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, v. 9, p. 12-20, 1987.

[23] ELLIS, R. Task-based language learning and teaching Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.

[24] ENGLE, R. W.; ORANSKY, N. The evolution from short-term to working memory: multi-store to dynamic models of temporary storage. In: STERNBERG, R. J. (Ed.). The nature of cognition Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1997. p. 515-555.

[25] ENGLE, R. W.; LAUGHLIN, J. E.; TUHOLSKI, S. W.; CONWAY, A. R. A. Working memory, short-term memory and general fluid intelligence: A latent variable approach. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Genera, 1999.

[26] ENGLE, R. W.; KANE, M. J.; TUHOLSKI, S. W. Individual differences in working memory capacity and what they tell us about controlled attention, general fluid intelligence and functions of the prefrontal cortex. In: MIYAKE, A.; SHAH, P. (Ed.). Models of working memory: mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999. p. 102-134.

[27] ENGLE, R. W.; CANTOR, J.; CARULLO, J. J. Individual differences in working memory and comprehension: a test of four hypotheses. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, v. 18, p. 972-992, 1992.

[28] ESCUDERO, P. The perception of English vowel contrasts: Acoustic cue reliance in the development of new contrasts. In: James, A.; Leather (Ed.). New Sounds 2000: Preceedings of the Fourth International Symposium of the Acquisition of Second-Language Speech (University of Amsterdam, September 2000). Klagenfurt: University of Klagenfurt, 2002. p. 122-131.

[29] FORTKAMP, M. B. M. Working memory capacity and L2 speech production: an exploratory study 2000. Tese (Doutorado em Inglês e Literatura Correspondente) - UFSC, Florianópolis.

[30] FOSTER, P.; SKEHAN, P. The influence of planning and task type on second language performance. Studies in Second language acquisition, v. 18, p. 299-323, 1996.

[31] FOSTER, P. Rules and Routines: A consideration of their role in the task-based language production of native and non-native speakers. In: BYGATE, M.; SKEHAN, P.; SWAIN, M. (Ed.). Researching pedagogic tasks - Second Language Learning and Testing Longman, 2001.

[32] FREED, B. F. What makes us think that students who study abroad become fluent? In: FREED, F. B. (Ed.). Second Language Acquisition in a Study Abroad Context Philadelphia: John Benjamins North America, 1995.

[33] GREEN, D. W. Control, activation, and resource: A framework and a model for the control of speech in Bilinguals. Brain and language, v. 27, p. 210-223. Academic Press, 1986.

[34] HARRINGTON, M. Working memory capacity as a constraint on L2 development. In: HARRIS, R. J. (Ed.). Cognitive processing in bilinguals Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1992.

[35] HARRINGTON, M.; SAWYER, M. L2 working memory capacity and L2 reading skill. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, v. 14, p. 25-38, 1993.

[36] HEWINGS, M. Pronunciation Tasks Cambridge University Press, 1993.

[37] HUBER, W. Text comprehension and production in aphasia: Analysis in terms of micro and macroprocessing. In: JOANETTE, Y.; BROWNELL, H. H. (Ed.). Discourse ability and brain damage: Theoretical and empirical perspectives Chestnut Hill, MA: Springer-Verlag, 1990.

[38] ILLES, J.; FRANCIS, W. S.; DESMOND, J. E.; GABRIELI, J. D. E.; GLOVER, G. H.; POLDRACK, R.; LEE, C. J.; WAGNER, A. D. Convergent cortical representation of semantic processing in bilinguals. Brain and Language, v. 70, p. 347-363, 1999.

[39] JUST, M. A.; CARPENTER, P. A. A theory of reading: from eye fixations to comprehension. Psychological Review, v. 87, p. 329-354, 1980.

[40] JUST, M.; CARPENTER, P. The Psychology of Reading and Language Comprehension. Massachusetts: Library of Congress Cataloging-in- Publication data, 1987.

[41] JUST, M. A.; CARPENTER, P. A. A capacity theory of comprehension: Individual differences in working memory. Psychological Review, v. 99, p. 122-149, 1992.

[42] KINTSCH, W.; VAN DIJK, T. Toward a model of text comprehension and production. Psychological Review, v. 85, n. 5, p. 363-394, 1978.

[43] LAPOINT, L. Neurogenic Disorders of Communication. In: Minifio, F. (Ed.). Introduction to Communication Sciences and Disorders San Diego: Singular, 1994. p. 351-397.

[44] LENNON, P. Investigating Fluency in EFL: A Quantitative Approach. Language Learning, v. 40, n. 3, p. 387-417, 1999.

[45] LEVELT, W. J. M. Speaking: From intention to articulation Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. 1981. Chapters 1-2.

[46] MEHNERT, U. The effects of different lengths of time for planning on second language performance. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, v. 20, p. 83-108, 1998.

[47] MIYAKE, A.; FRIEDMAN, N. P. Individual differences in second language proficiency: working memory as language aptitude. In: HEALY, A. F.; BOURNE, Jr., L. E. (Ed.). Foreign language learning: Psycholinguistic studies on training and retention Mahawah, N. J: Lawrence Erbaum, 1998. p. 339-364.

[48] OBLER, L.; GJERLOW, K. Language and the brain Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.

[49] ORTEGA, L. Planning and focus on form in L2 oral performance. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, v. 21, p. 109-148, 1999.

[50] PARADIS, M. Differential Use of Cerebral Mechanisms in Bilinguals. In: BANICH, Marie T.; MACK, Molly (Ed.). Mind, Brain, and Language Mahwah: LEA, 2003.

[51] PAWLEY, A.; SYDER, F. H. Two puzzles for linguistic theory: nativelike selection and nativelike fluency. In: RICHARDS, J. C.; SCHMIDT, R. W. (Ed.). Language and Communication, New York: Longman, 1983. p. 191-226.

[52] PERFETTI, C. A.; LESGOLD, A. M. Discourse comprehension and sources of individual differences. In: JUST, M. A.; CARPENTER, P. A. (Ed.). Cognitive processes in comprehension Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1977.

[53] PHELPS, E. A. Brain versus behavioral studies of cognition. In: STERNBERG, R. J. (Ed.). The nature of cognition Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1999.

[54] RIGGENBACH, H. Toward an Understanding of Fluency: a Microanalysis of Nonnative Speaker Conversations. Discourse Processes, v. 14, p. 423-441, 1991.

[55] SCHMIDT, R. The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics, v. 11, p.17-46, 1990.

[56] SIRIGU, A.; COHEN, I.; ZALLA, T.; PRADAT-DIEHL, P.; VAN EECKHOUT, P.; GRAFMAN, J.; AGID, V. Distinct frontal regions for processing sentence syntax and story grammar. Cortex, v. 14, p. 771-778, 1998.

[57] SKEHAN, P.; FOSTER, P. Task type and task processing as influences on foreign language performance. In: SKEHAN, P. (Ed). Working papers in English Language Teaching, 3, 1995. p. 139-188.

[58] SKEHAN, P. A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.

[59] SKEHAN, P. A Framework for the Implementation of Task-based Instruction. Applied Linguistics, v. 17, n. 1. Oxford University Press, 1996.

[60] SKEHAN, P.; FOSTER, P. Task type and task processing as influences on foreign language performance. In: SKEHAN, P. (Ed.). Working papers in English Language, 1995.

[61] SPRINGER, S. P.; DEUTSCH, G. Left brain, right brain: Perspectives from neuroscience New York: W.H. Freeman and Company, 1998. Chs. 1, p. 9-29, and 7, p.160-198.

[62] TEMPLE, L. Disfluencies in Learning Speech. In Learner Speech. Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, v. 15, n.2, p. 29-44, 1992.

[63] TOMITCH, L. M. B. Reading: Text organization perception and working memory capacity Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, 1995.

[64] TOMITCH, L. M. B. Individual Differences in the Text Organization Perception and Working Memory Capacity. Revista da ANPOLL, n. 2, p. 71-93, 1996.

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Memória de trabalho e desempenho em tarefas de L2

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