Abstracts
Purpose
The present study investigated the characteristics of phonological information processing as manifested in the writing of dictated syntagmas, capable of indicating possible correlations and the predictive impact between the analyzed orthography errors (coding of voiced and voiceless phonemes, undue segmentation and word junction) according to the school system.
Methods
Eighty children from both genders, aged between 6 and 11 years, were selected from those regularly enrolled between the 2nd and 5th years of primary education, in both public and private schools in the municipality of São Paulo. The participants wrote, as dictated to them, 34 noun syntagmas composed of high frequency words.
Results
The three types of error were correlated with one another according to different patterns in each school system. In the public schools, voice-voiceless coding errors and undue segmentations were positively correlated. Perception characteristics directed to the metric foot and the syllable might have influenced the children’s performance. As for the results in private schools, the perception of the phonological word, phonological phrase and intonational phrase might have influenced the correlations between errors of the voiced-voiceless type and junctions.
Conclusion
Voiced-voiceless coding errors, word junction and undue separation manifested differently between private and public schools, regarding writing performance. Only in private schools could the voiced-voiceless coding errors predict those of word junction and hypersegmentation.
Handwriting; Education; primary and secondary; Speech; language and hearing sciences; Evaluation studies; Language; Psycholinguistics
Objetivo
O estudo investigou características do processamento da informação fonológica, manifestadas na escrita sob ditado de sintagmas, capazes de indicar possíveis correlações e algum impacto preditor entre os erros ortográficos analisados (codificação de fonemas surdos e sonoros, segmentação indevida, juntura vocabular), segundo a rede de ensino.
Métodos
Foram selecionados 80 escolares, meninos e meninas, na faixa etária entre 6 e 11 anos, regularmente matriculados do 2º ao 5º ano do Ensino Fundamental, em escolas da rede pública estadual e particular, do município de São Paulo. Os participantes escreveram, sob ditado, 34 sintagmas nominais, formados por palavras de alta frequência.
Resultados
Os três tipos de erros correlacionaram-se segundo padrões diferentes, em cada rede de ensino. Na rede pública, os erros de codificação surda sonora e segmentações indevidas correlacionaram-se positivamente. Características de percepção direcionada ao pé métrico e à sílaba, podem ter influenciado o desempenho dos escolares. Na rede particular, a percepção da palavra fonológica, da frase fonológica e da frase entonacional pode ter influenciado as correlações entre os erros do tipo surdo sonoro e as junturas.
Conclusão
Os erros de codificação surdos sonoros, juntura vocabular e separação indevida diferenciaram-se nas redes de ensino, quanto ao desempenho em escrita. Apenas na rede particular os erros de codificação surdos sonoros puderam predizer os de juntura vocabular e segmentação indevida.
Escrita manual; Ensino fundamental e médio; Fonoaudiologia; Estudos de avaliação; Linguagem; Psicolinguística
INTRODUCTION
Writing may be understood as a representation of speech. In alphabetical writing,
orthography performs the fundamental role of neutralizing speech
variations(11 . Cunha APN, Miranda ARM. A influência da hierarquia prosódica em
hipossegmentações da escrita de crianças de séries iniciais. Rev Virtual Estud
Ling [internet]. 2007 [acesso em: 23 mar 2014];5(1) [19 p.]. Disponível em:
http://www.revel.inf.br/files/artigos/revel_esp_1_a_influencia_da_hierarquia_prosodica.pdf
http://www.revel.inf.br/files/artigos/re...
). A
language’s oral mode varies along time, space and the social group in which the
speech takes place, as well as according to each discursive situation. Despite
being an official standard imposed by law, orthography also varies along time.
The greater or lesser correspondence to speech is what renders the written word
more or less transparent(22 . Morais AG. Ortografia: ensinar e aprender. 10a ed. São Paulo:
Ática; 2009.
3 . Queiroga BAM, Lins MB, Pereira MALV. Conhecimento morfossintático
e ortografia em crianças do ensino fundamental. Psic: Teor Pesq.
2006;22(1):95-99.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0102-37722006000100012
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-3772200600...
-44 . Fernández AY, Mérida JFC, Cunha VLO, Batista AO, Capellini SA.
Avaliação e intervenção da disortografia baseada na semiologia dos erros:
revisão da literatura. Rev CEFAC. 2010;12(3):499-504.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1516-18462010005000056
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-1846201000...
).
Learning to write depends, fundamentally, on adequate phonological development
and information processing that allow one to associate phonemes with graphemes.
The phonological substrate, consisting of auditory memories and linguistic
experiences, enables never before heard or visualized words to be written.
Despite the recognized importance of processing different types of information,
phonological information is undoubtedly the learning basis for the alphabetical
principle, which is the first step towards mastering orthography. However, to
reach this goal, in addition to phonological information processing, one must
also have morphosyntactic and metagraphic skills(44 . Fernández AY, Mérida JFC, Cunha VLO, Batista AO, Capellini SA.
Avaliação e intervenção da disortografia baseada na semiologia dos erros:
revisão da literatura. Rev CEFAC. 2010;12(3):499-504.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1516-18462010005000056
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-1846201000...
,55 . Bousquet S, Cogis D, Ducard D, Massonet J, Jaffré JP. Acquisition
de l´ortographe et mondes cognitifs. Rev Fr Pedagog.
1999;126:23-37.),
knowledge of vocabulary, and auditory and visual memory; there are also
education constraints, such as the teaching method’s characteristics and the
socio-cultural factors in the schooling context(22 . Morais AG. Ortografia: ensinar e aprender. 10a ed. São Paulo:
Ática; 2009.
3 . Queiroga BAM, Lins MB, Pereira MALV. Conhecimento morfossintático
e ortografia em crianças do ensino fundamental. Psic: Teor Pesq.
2006;22(1):95-99.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0102-37722006000100012
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-3772200600...
4 . Fernández AY, Mérida JFC, Cunha VLO, Batista AO, Capellini SA.
Avaliação e intervenção da disortografia baseada na semiologia dos erros:
revisão da literatura. Rev CEFAC. 2010;12(3):499-504.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1516-18462010005000056
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-1846201000...
5 . Bousquet S, Cogis D, Ducard D, Massonet J, Jaffré JP. Acquisition
de l´ortographe et mondes cognitifs. Rev Fr Pedagog.
1999;126:23-37.
6 . Jaffré JP. Écritures et sémiographie. Linx. 2000;43:15-28.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4000/linx.1038
https://doi.org/10.4000/linx.1038...
7 . Santos MTM. Vocabulário, consciência fonológica e nomeação rápida:
contribuições para a ortografia e elaboração escrita. Rev Soc Bras Fonoaudiol.
2007;12(3):262.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1516-80342007000300017
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-8034200700...
-88 . Gonçalves BAG, Capellini SA. Desempenho de escolares de 1ª série
na bateria de identificação de erros de reversão e inversão na escrita: estudo
preliminar. Rev CEFAC. 2010;12(6):998-1008.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1516-18462010005000060
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-1846201000...
).
Therefore, hypotheses based on phonological, semantic and mophosyntactic
analyses, along with memory of both spoken and written words, complete the
learning of orthography(99 . Largy P, Cousin MP, Bryant P, Fayol M. When memorized instances
compete with rules: the case of number-noun agreement in written french. J Child
Lang. 2007;34(2):425-37.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0305000906007914
https://doi.org/10.1017/S030500090600791...
,1010 . Justi FR, Pinheiro AMV. O efeito de vizinhança ortográfica no
português do Brasil: acesso lexical ou processamento estratégico. Rev Interam
Psicol. 2006;40(3):275-88.).
During the process of appropriating the orthographic system, it is natural for
the child to make some mistakes. The necessary classification of these errors
may help identify possible skill deficits underlying the learning of the
alphabetic principle. Some of these errors are a normal part of development and
can be overcome along the learning process, while others can only be corrected
through clinic interventions(44 . Fernández AY, Mérida JFC, Cunha VLO, Batista AO, Capellini SA.
Avaliação e intervenção da disortografia baseada na semiologia dos erros:
revisão da literatura. Rev CEFAC. 2010;12(3):499-504.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1516-18462010005000056
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-1846201000...
,1111 . Nobile GG, Barrera SD. Análise de erros ortográficos em alunos do
ensino público fundamental que apresentam dificuldades na escrita. Psicol Rev.
2009;15(2):36-55.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5752/P.1678-9563.2009V15N2P36
https://doi.org/10.5752/P.1678-9563.2009...
,1212 . Zorzi JL, Ciasca SM. Análise de erros ortográficos em diferentes
problemas de aprendizagem. Rev CEFAC. 2009;11(3):406-16.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1516-18462009000300007
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-1846200900...
). In learning disorders, errors due to orthographic
processes appear to be the most frequent ones, even if they are prevalently
followed by errors related to phonological processes(1212 . Zorzi JL, Ciasca SM. Análise de erros ortográficos em diferentes
problemas de aprendizagem. Rev CEFAC. 2009;11(3):406-16.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1516-18462009000300007
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-1846200900...
).
Different studies have proposed classifications of these errors found early in
learning and/or in the learning difficulties or disorders. Some errors in
orthography are determined by phonology-based deficits and have generally and
consensually been classified as follows: errors in coding complex syllables;
errors due to swapped letters - those most frequently observed are between
voiced and voiceless consonants; segmentation errors - due to hypo- or
hypersegmentation, as observed in text writing(1111 . Nobile GG, Barrera SD. Análise de erros ortográficos em alunos do
ensino público fundamental que apresentam dificuldades na escrita. Psicol Rev.
2009;15(2):36-55.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5752/P.1678-9563.2009V15N2P36
https://doi.org/10.5752/P.1678-9563.2009...
). Certain authors have classified these errors
based semiologically on natural orthography errors, which have a direct relation
to language processing and arbitrary orthography, and errors directly related to
visual memory, knowledge of orthographic rules, lexicon and
morphology(44 . Fernández AY, Mérida JFC, Cunha VLO, Batista AO, Capellini SA.
Avaliação e intervenção da disortografia baseada na semiologia dos erros:
revisão da literatura. Rev CEFAC. 2010;12(3):499-504.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1516-18462010005000056
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-1846201000...
).
While learning to write, the child builds a series of hypotheses about the way
words and sentences are recorded. He or she learns to perceive that a word is
composed of syllables, made up of phonemes that are graphically registered by
letters. Moreover, in oral communication, more specifically in chained speech,
syllables are pronounced in tonal groups, which do not necessarily correspond to
a word(11 . Cunha APN, Miranda ARM. A influência da hierarquia prosódica em
hipossegmentações da escrita de crianças de séries iniciais. Rev Virtual Estud
Ling [internet]. 2007 [acesso em: 23 mar 2014];5(1) [19 p.]. Disponível em:
http://www.revel.inf.br/files/artigos/revel_esp_1_a_influencia_da_hierarquia_prosodica.pdf
http://www.revel.inf.br/files/artigos/re...
). The pronunciation of
tonal groups does not always coincide with the graphical spaces that delimit the
words’ boundaries. In oral communication, a tonal group may be formed by more
than one word. This difference between pronunciation and the written record is
not taken into account in activities that have words as unit of analysis,
because recording isolated words does not reproduce the same system of pauses
and intonation found in speech(11 . Cunha APN, Miranda ARM. A influência da hierarquia prosódica em
hipossegmentações da escrita de crianças de séries iniciais. Rev Virtual Estud
Ling [internet]. 2007 [acesso em: 23 mar 2014];5(1) [19 p.]. Disponível em:
http://www.revel.inf.br/files/artigos/revel_esp_1_a_influencia_da_hierarquia_prosodica.pdf
http://www.revel.inf.br/files/artigos/re...
,1313 . Rowe DW. Development of writing habilities in childhood. In:
Bazerman C. Handbook of research on writing. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum; 2008.
Capítulo 25, 401-19.,1414 . Chacon L. Hipersegmentações na escrita infantil: entrelaçamentos
de práticas de oralidade e de letramento. Estud Ling.
2005;34:77-86.). In chained speech, the
word’s phonic structure generally undergoes changes due to the coarticulation of
its ending and the beginning of the following word, so that even a restructuring
of the syllabic patterns may take place. This phenomenon is observed in what is
known as word junction and hypersegmentation(1212 . Zorzi JL, Ciasca SM. Análise de erros ortográficos em diferentes
problemas de aprendizagem. Rev CEFAC. 2009;11(3):406-16.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1516-18462009000300007
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-1846200900...
,1515 . Cagliari LC. Alfabetização e linguística. São Paulo: Scipione;
2009.,1616 . Chevrot JP, Dugua C, Fayol M. Liaison acquisition, word
segmentation and construction in French: a usage-based account. J Child Lang.
2009;36(3):557-96. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1017/S0305000908009124
https://doi.org/ 10.1017/S03050009080091...
). In Brazilian Portuguese, the
stressed syllable has a greater sound volume or duration than unstressed
syllables do, which characterizes the idiom’s accented and non-syllabic
rhythm(1414 . Chacon L. Hipersegmentações na escrita infantil: entrelaçamentos
de práticas de oralidade e de letramento. Estud Ling.
2005;34:77-86.). This
information is phonological and may influence, for example, the writing of
syntagmas for which the child must realize that the orthographic division of the
lexical items does not always correspond to the phonetic segmentation.
Therefore, to identify errors characterized by word junction or
hypersegmentation in the context of writing, one must analyze the phrase, the
syntagma, and not just the word in isolation.
Despite this characteristic, a large portion of the surveys or evaluations of the ability to learn orthography are conducted only through the dictation of isolated words. The same procedure may be followed in the speech therapy or psychopedagogic clinic, which seeks to identify the difficulties and changes in the learning of writing, especially those related to deficits in orthographic processing. Therefore, in word dictation, the word junction and hypersegmentation errors are disregarded(22 . Morais AG. Ortografia: ensinar e aprender. 10a ed. São Paulo: Ática; 2009.).
This study’s justification is based on the need to determine the nature,
characteristics and classification of these errors, which may be considered
markers or indications of changes or deficits connected to phonological
processes, which in turn should be investigated and treated in speech therapy
clinics(1717 . Batista AO. Desempenho ortográfico de escolares do 2º ao 5º ano:
proposta de elaboração de um protocolo de avaliação da ortografia [dissertação].
Marília: Universidade Estadual de São Paulo; 2011.). To this
end, using syntagma dictation, three types of errors based on phonological
development and knowledge were investigated: written coding of phonemes that
distinguish themselves by the use of voice; undue junction between words
(vocabulary) and segmentation, also considered to be related to phonological
processing. The swapping of letters whose corresponding phonemes are opposed to
one another by the use of voice, aside from being very frequent(1212 . Zorzi JL, Ciasca SM. Análise de erros ortográficos em diferentes
problemas de aprendizagem. Rev CEFAC. 2009;11(3):406-16.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1516-18462009000300007
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-1846200900...
), are more promptly recognized
in the field of education and in the speech therapy clinic. The connection to
phonological development is easily identified because the persistent
voicelessness in school-aged children is not uncommon.
One must know the nature and characteristics of errors, which although
orthographically manifested, may be considered as markers or indications of
changes or deficits in phonological processing. These changes must be considered
relevant during the speech therapy investigation and in the clinic(1717 . Batista AO. Desempenho ortográfico de escolares do 2º ao 5º ano:
proposta de elaboração de um protocolo de avaliação da ortografia [dissertação].
Marília: Universidade Estadual de São Paulo; 2011.), especially when the child
has already passed the stage in which segmentation, junction or letter swapping
errors are common and, in a sense, even expected(11 . Cunha APN, Miranda ARM. A influência da hierarquia prosódica em
hipossegmentações da escrita de crianças de séries iniciais. Rev Virtual Estud
Ling [internet]. 2007 [acesso em: 23 mar 2014];5(1) [19 p.]. Disponível em:
http://www.revel.inf.br/files/artigos/revel_esp_1_a_influencia_da_hierarquia_prosodica.pdf
http://www.revel.inf.br/files/artigos/re...
,1212 . Zorzi JL, Ciasca SM. Análise de erros ortográficos em diferentes
problemas de aprendizagem. Rev CEFAC. 2009;11(3):406-16.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1516-18462009000300007
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-1846200900...
).
There are few studies related to this need, which appears to be more of a
clinical that pedagogic nature, especially when considering school-attending
children who make mistakes in writing after the learning phase, when these
errors are normal and expected. Consequently, beyond the investigation into the
presence of written-coding errors for phonemes that distinguish themselves by
the use of voice, other changes in writing such as word junction or
hypersegmentation, believed to be associated with phonological processing, were
also investigated to help reduce possible distortions of the phonoaudiological
evaluation clinic when designing phonological or orthographic profiles for
errors in writing. From the literature’s perspective, which distinguishes the
production between private and public schools, the present study has
distinguished these errors in both contexts(1818 . Moojen SMP. A escrita ortográfica na escola e na clínica: teoria,
avaliação e tratamento. São Paulo: Casa do Psicólogo; 2009.,1919 . Bigarelli JFP, Ávila CRB. Habilidades ortográficas e de narrativa
escrita no ensino fundamental: características e correlações. J Soc Bras
Fonoaudiol. 2011;23(3):237-47.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S2179-64912011000300009
https://doi.org/10.1590/S2179-6491201100...
).
According to the National Curricular Parameters (Parâmetros Curriculares
Nacionais - PCN), it is expected that, from the end of the first
cycle (5th year) of primary education, students will not make
orthographic errors in “words of regular orthography or irregular, but
frequent”(2020 . Ministério da Educação e do Desporto. Secretaria de Educação
Fundamental. Parâmetros curriculares nacionais: Língua portuguesa. Brasília:
Secretaria de Educação Fundamental; 1997.). In a
sense, the orthographic error is a reflection of cognitive processes that
indicate a given way of representing speech. They are visible traces of
knowledge in that given moment. Orthography errors result from processes that
are inherent to all learning and manifest the representation that underlies the
written form(2121 . Meireles ES, Correa J. Regras contextuais e morfossintáticas na
aquisição da ortografia da língua portuguesa por criança. Psicol Teor Pesq.
2005;21(1):77-84.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0102-37722005000100011
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-3772200500...
22 . Jaffré J-P. De la variation en orthographe. Étud Lingu Appl.
2010;3(159):309-23.-2323 . Teixeira SM, Grassi LM, Oliveira ND, Miranda ARM. Uma reflexão
sobre os erros ortográficos e sobre a importância da formação teórica para a
prática pedagógica de professores das séries iniciais. Verba Volant [internet].
2011 [acesso em: 10 mar 2011];2(1):78-94. Disponível em:
http://letras.ufpel.edu.br/verbavolant/segundo/ana2.pdf
http://letras.ufpel.edu.br/verbavolant/s...
).
In the literature, one finds analyses, tables and normatizations of errors, but only as they occur in isolated words. Issues regarding the perception of word boundaries are less frequently discussed. Neither does one find comparisons between errors made in dictations of isolated words(2424 . Pinheiro AMV, Lúcio PS, Silva DMR. Avaliação cognitiva de leitura: o efeito de regularidade grafema-fonema e fonema-grafema na leitura em voz alta de palavras isoladas no português do Brasil. Psicol: Teor Prat. 2008;10(2):16-30.), such as those found in the writing of words immersed in a phrasal context, in all basic education schools(1818 . Moojen SMP. A escrita ortográfica na escola e na clínica: teoria, avaliação e tratamento. São Paulo: Casa do Psicólogo; 2009.,2525 . Pinheiro AMV. Contagem de frequência de ocorrência de palavras expostas a crianças na faixa pré-escolar e séries iniciais do 1º grau. São Paulo: Associação Brasileira de Dislexia; 1996.). This work was developed from the hypothesis that differences exist and can be observed in different proportions in public and private schools.
Therefore, this study has sought to ascertain the characteristics of phonological
information processing as manifested in writing among students in the First
Cycle of Primary Education, during the dictation of syntagmas, which might
indicate a possible correlation and some predictive impact between the
orthographic errors being analyzed - namely, voiced and voiceless phoneme
coding, hypersegmentation and word junction - based on whether the school is
public or not. The voiced vs. voiceless phoneme coding error served as basis for
the investigation into predicting an error’s occurring on the heels of another,
as this error is the most frequent(1212 . Zorzi JL, Ciasca SM. Análise de erros ortográficos em diferentes
problemas de aprendizagem. Rev CEFAC. 2009;11(3):406-16.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1516-18462009000300007
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-1846200900...
) of the three chosen for this analysis.
METHODS
This study complements the pilot study of a project submitted to the Research Ethics Committee of the Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), approved under nº. 1768/11. The Terms of Agreement and of Free and Informed Consent were signed by the teaching institutions and the legal guardians of the participating children, respectively, before the data were gathered.
Sample selection
Eighty children (43 boys and 37 girls), aged between 6 and 11 years, regularly enrolled between the 2nd and 5th years of Primary Education either in schools of the state’s public (PU) or private system (PV) in the municipality of São Paulo were selected. For each school year, twenty students were selected, 10 from the PU and 10 from the PV.
The children were selected according to the following previously defined inclusion criteria, for both groups: no complaints or indicators of hearing deficits; no complaints or indicators of (uncorrected) visual deficits; no complaints or indicators of neurological, behavioral or cognitive disorders; not having failed any school year.
The parents responded to a questionnaire with data about their children’s development, and the teachers completed a form about their performance in school, to guarantee that the criteria for inclusion in the sample were being met.
Instruments
The dictation exam contained a list of 34 noun syntagmas, built from high-frequency words(2525 . Pinheiro AMV. Contagem de frequência de ocorrência de palavras expostas a crianças na faixa pré-escolar e séries iniciais do 1º grau. São Paulo: Associação Brasileira de Dislexia; 1996.).
Procedures
1. Data gathering
The assessment sessions occurred during school hours, at times previously set by the school’s coordinators and teaching staff and in a room chosen by the school’s principal. The dictations were applied during the second school semester of 2012.
Participants received a black pencil and a sheet of paper with a specific area for identifying the record information (name, date and school year). After writing this identification, the students were given the following instruction: “I will dictate some words, and you should write these words down on the sheet you have received. If necessary, I will dictate more than once. If you make a mistake, strike what you have written through and write again next to it. You are not permitted to erase anything.”
2. Data analysis
With the present work’s objectives in view, possible errors or imprecisions produced in the noun syntagma dictation exam were identified and then analyzed.
For the analysis and classification of writing errors, only voiced vs. voiceless phoneme coding, hypersegmentation and word junction errors were considered. The total number of errors found in the children’s output was summated per type of error and per school system.
3. Statistical method
For statistical treatment of the results, the appropriate tests for performing the analyses required in this study were used.
Comparisons between groups were made by the Mann-Whitney test, which is the non-parametric equivalent of the t-test for independent measurements, given the asymmetric distribution of the variables involved.
The ascertainment of the existence of a correlation between the number of voiced-voiceless errors and the other variables in the study (word junction, hypersegmentation) was made using Spearman’s correlation test because the data were not normally distributed (Kolmogorov-Smirnof).
To assess the predictive impact of the variable “number of coding errors for voiced and voiceless phonemes at the closing of word junctions” and “hypersegmentation”, zero-inflated Poisson regression models were used. Due to the non-independent nature of the observations (children in the 2nd year, both in private and public schools, displayed a greater error count similarity among them than did children in later school years), the Poisson regression models were controlled by a multilevel cluster structure, thus yielding robust standard errors (RSEs). The independent regression models were generated both for PU and PV, and the inflation rate was kept constant. The adopted significance level was 0.05.
RESULTS
Intergroup comparisons were made, correlations between the variables in the study were investigated, and their predictive impact was assessed.
The comparisons made using the Mann-Whitney test showed that children in private schools (PV) made fewer errors than children in public schools (PU) did, for all items in the analysis. Significant differences were found (Table 1).
Spearman’s correlation was used to investigate the existence of a correlation between errors in coding voiced and voiceless phonemes and the remaining types of error being studied - hypersegmentation and word junction (Table 2).
A significant and positive correlation (r=0.535, p<0.001) between orthographic errors when coding voiced/voiceless phonemes and hypersegmentation was observed in the PU data. The same correlation was observed between hypersegmentation and word junction (Table 3).
In the case of PV, correlations between errors in coding voiced and voiceless phonemes and word junction were observed (r=0.446*, p=0.004). When the school system was disregarded, it was observed that errors in coding voiced and voiceless phonemes did not correlate with hypersegmentation (r=0.270 p=0.092) but correlated with word junction errors (r=0.267*, p=0.017) (Table 4).
Moreover, the number of orthographic errors in the PU data when coding voiced and voiceless phonemes was not a predictor of the remaining types of error considered in this study. However, all other orthographic errors were predicted by the number of errors in coding voiced and voiceless phonemes, in the PV data. This being the case, each error in coding voiced and voiceless phonemes increased the count of hypersegmentation errors by 0.384 and the count of word junction errors by 0.587 (Table 5).
DISCUSSION
Learning orthography depends, among other factors, on a metalinguistic knowledge
of morphosyntactic phenomena, on adequate representations and processing of
phonological information, which serve as a foundation for the phoneme-grapheme
association(22 . Morais AG. Ortografia: ensinar e aprender. 10a ed. São Paulo:
Ática; 2009.,33 . Queiroga BAM, Lins MB, Pereira MALV. Conhecimento morfossintático
e ortografia em crianças do ensino fundamental. Psic: Teor Pesq.
2006;22(1):95-99.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0102-37722006000100012
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-3772200600...
,55 . Bousquet S, Cogis D, Ducard D, Massonet J, Jaffré JP. Acquisition
de l´ortographe et mondes cognitifs. Rev Fr Pedagog.
1999;126:23-37.
6 . Jaffré JP. Écritures et sémiographie. Linx. 2000;43:15-28.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4000/linx.1038
https://doi.org/10.4000/linx.1038...
7 . Santos MTM. Vocabulário, consciência fonológica e nomeação rápida:
contribuições para a ortografia e elaboração escrita. Rev Soc Bras Fonoaudiol.
2007;12(3):262.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1516-80342007000300017
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-8034200700...
-88 . Gonçalves BAG, Capellini SA. Desempenho de escolares de 1ª série
na bateria de identificação de erros de reversão e inversão na escrita: estudo
preliminar. Rev CEFAC. 2010;12(6):998-1008.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1516-18462010005000060
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-1846201000...
). In the
Portuguese language, phonemes and graphemes establish both biunivocal and
multiple relations.
In this study, errors of a purely orthographic nature (irregularities, multiple representation), which appeared with different frequencies, were disregarded due to the nature of the object of investigation, which was limited to analyzing errors in coding voiced and voiceless phonemes, hypersegmentation and word junction.
It is important to mention that, among the errors in coding voiced and voiceless
phonemes, apart from those of orthographic transparency, there are also errors
that displayed interference from Portuguese writing’s opacity. This type of
error is the one most frequently mentioned in the literature(1212 . Zorzi JL, Ciasca SM. Análise de erros ortográficos em diferentes
problemas de aprendizagem. Rev CEFAC. 2009;11(3):406-16.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1516-18462009000300007
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-1846200900...
) and was also the most
numerous in this study, both for the PU and PV data. Hypersegmentation and word
junction errors were also found in the writing of dictated syntagmas (Table 1). When building hypotheses
about writing, the pupil is influenced by prosody. However, because the prosodic
boundary does not always coincide with that of words, undue word junctions and
hypersegmentation of words were observed in the students’ writing(1515 . Cagliari LC. Alfabetização e linguística. São Paulo: Scipione;
2009.). Thus, the results of our
study confirm those in the literature.
These types of errors cannot be considered, or found, when the assessment protocols use isolated items(22 . Morais AG. Ortografia: ensinar e aprender. 10a ed. São Paulo: Ática; 2009.). Using noun syntagmas for the dictation revealed errors connected to the perception of the words’ phonological structure, or of their syllabic segments or tonal groups. It also allowed a comparison of these errors among students, school years(2626 . Arnaut MA, Hackerott MMS, Ávila CRB. Hipersegmentação, aglutinação e trocas entre surdas/sonoras em escolares do ciclo 1 do ensino fundamental. Sessão de pôster apresentada em: 21º Congresso Brasileiro de Fonoaudiologia; 22-25 set 2013; Porto de Galinhas (PE), BR.) and types of school.
As the most numerous errors observed in coding voiced and voiceless phonemes, the
persistence and higher frequency of word junctions and hypersegmentations,
especially in later school years, may indicate difficulties at the phonological
level that still have not been overcome(1212 . Zorzi JL, Ciasca SM. Análise de erros ortográficos em diferentes
problemas de aprendizagem. Rev CEFAC. 2009;11(3):406-16.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1516-18462009000300007
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-1846200900...
).
The statistical analysis identified a similar performance in writing for children
in the 2nd school years, but different performances in subsequent
years (Table 1), when comparing the
two types of school. Errors in coding voiced and voiceless phonemes were the
most frequent ones in both types of school and served best to distinguish
between them, although the PU data also showed a worse performance in
hypersegmentations and word junction than did the PV data. These data agree with
those found in the literature, but one must stress that this literature refers
to studies with the dictation of isolated words, for grading purposes(22 . Morais AG. Ortografia: ensinar e aprender. 10a ed. São Paulo:
Ática; 2009.,33 . Queiroga BAM, Lins MB, Pereira MALV. Conhecimento morfossintático
e ortografia em crianças do ensino fundamental. Psic: Teor Pesq.
2006;22(1):95-99.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0102-37722006000100012
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0102-3772200600...
,77 . Santos MTM. Vocabulário, consciência fonológica e nomeação rápida:
contribuições para a ortografia e elaboração escrita. Rev Soc Bras Fonoaudiol.
2007;12(3):262.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1516-80342007000300017
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-8034200700...
).
The correlation of performances by error type (Table 2) - which revealed that with more errors in coding voiced and voiceless phonemes come more errors in undue word junction and hypersegmentation in children’s syntagma writing - may indicate that these errors have the same phonological nature. However, when a correlation pattern was separately sought for each school system, it was observed in the PU data that errors in coding voiced and voiceless phonemes correlate positively only to hypersegmentation, which, in turn, also correlates positively to word junction (Table 3). Hypersegmentations are the allocation of spaces within the boundaries of a word, and may indicate that the child’s perception might be directed to the lower constituents of the phonological organizational hierarchy, such as syllable and metric foot(1414 . Chacon L. Hipersegmentações na escrita infantil: entrelaçamentos de práticas de oralidade e de letramento. Estud Ling. 2005;34:77-86.,2727 . Cunha APND, Miranda ARM. A hipo e a hipersegmentação nos dados de aquisição de escrita: a influência da prosódia. Alfa. 2009;53(1):127-48.). This evidence may therefore indicate a probable deficit in the perception of words as linguistic unit, leading the student to reproduce segmentations, which are internal to the lexical item, during the early stages of writing or in the presence of some disorder, when the frequency of this error is high. The question would be whether this perception is part of the development process, whether it is connected to vocabulary deficit or whether it denotes a loss or delay in phonological and/or hearing processing.
By contrast, for the PV data, only the word junction correlated positively with
errors in coding voiced and voiceless phonemes (Table 4). Word junctions denote a lack of spacing
between words’ boundaries and can be mostly influenced by higher constituents of
the phonological hierarchy(11 . Cunha APN, Miranda ARM. A influência da hierarquia prosódica em
hipossegmentações da escrita de crianças de séries iniciais. Rev Virtual Estud
Ling [internet]. 2007 [acesso em: 23 mar 2014];5(1) [19 p.]. Disponível em:
http://www.revel.inf.br/files/artigos/revel_esp_1_a_influencia_da_hierarquia_prosodica.pdf
http://www.revel.inf.br/files/artigos/re...
),
i.e., the tonal group, the phonological phrase or the intonational phrase. The
way in which the child perceives these units in the language may influence its
writing, making it harder to find the boundaries of words. Also in the PV group,
the results showed a correlation between errors in coding voiced and voiceless
phonemes and word junction, where the student perceives the tonal group, instead
of the word, as the signifying unit. Faulty perception of phonological
components might determine the permanence of this type of writing. The
difference between the correlation patterns found for each school system showed
that the developmental characteristics of the skills connected to phonological
and orthographic information processing may differ between the PU and PV groups.
It was observed that the number of errors in coding voiced and voiceless
phonemes was not a predictor for the outcome of hypersegmentation and word
junction in the regression model for PU students (Table 5). This result appears to be confirmed by the
fact that errors of the voiced-voiceless type predicted the other errors being
investigated (the frequency of word junctions and hypersegmentations) in the PV
data. That is, in private schools, both hypersegmentations and word junctions
were predicted by the number of errors in coding voiced and voiceless phonemes.
Each error in coding voiced and voiceless phonemes increases the number of
hypersegmentation errors by 0.384 and the number of word junctions by 0.587.
From the analysis of the results with respect to the number of errors in coding voiced and voiceless phonemes, considering that fewer errors were found in the PA data, one can raise the hypothesis that, among students in private schools, these errors might result from losses or deficits that characterize some type of learning disorder. The higher variability of the other types of errors found in the PU data for the four school years being studied might have defined this result, i.e., the variability of the errors was not defined just by the mean error values or mean standard deviations, but in qualitative terms, the PU data contained a larger number of errors of types which were not contemplated in this study.
The effects of schooling time on the errors found were not investigated in this
study(11 . Cunha APN, Miranda ARM. A influência da hierarquia prosódica em
hipossegmentações da escrita de crianças de séries iniciais. Rev Virtual Estud
Ling [internet]. 2007 [acesso em: 23 mar 2014];5(1) [19 p.]. Disponível em:
http://www.revel.inf.br/files/artigos/revel_esp_1_a_influencia_da_hierarquia_prosodica.pdf
http://www.revel.inf.br/files/artigos/re...
,22 . Morais AG. Ortografia: ensinar e aprender. 10a ed. São Paulo:
Ática; 2009.,1111 . Nobile GG, Barrera SD. Análise de erros ortográficos em alunos do
ensino público fundamental que apresentam dificuldades na escrita. Psicol Rev.
2009;15(2):36-55.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5752/P.1678-9563.2009V15N2P36
https://doi.org/10.5752/P.1678-9563.2009...
,1212 . Zorzi JL, Ciasca SM. Análise de erros ortográficos em diferentes
problemas de aprendizagem. Rev CEFAC. 2009;11(3):406-16.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1516-18462009000300007
https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-1846200900...
,1515 . Cagliari LC. Alfabetização e linguística. São Paulo: Scipione;
2009.,1717 . Batista AO. Desempenho ortográfico de escolares do 2º ao 5º ano:
proposta de elaboração de um protocolo de avaliação da ortografia [dissertação].
Marília: Universidade Estadual de São Paulo; 2011.,1818 . Moojen SMP. A escrita ortográfica na escola e na clínica: teoria,
avaliação e tratamento. São Paulo: Casa do Psicólogo; 2009.,2828 . Capellini SA, Butarelli APKJ, Germano GD. Dificuldades de
aprendizagem da escrita em escolares de 1a. 4a. séries do ensino público. Rev
Educ Questão. 2010;37(23):146-64.). This fact is a limitation of the study, in the sense
that the mean number of errors was computed over the four school years in each
school system, and it was not possible to observe, in this sample, the effect
related in most investigations conducted into the writing of children,
especially in the first grades.
In a previous study(2626 . Arnaut MA, Hackerott MMS, Ávila CRB. Hipersegmentação, aglutinação e trocas entre surdas/sonoras em escolares do ciclo 1 do ensino fundamental. Sessão de pôster apresentada em: 21º Congresso Brasileiro de Fonoaudiologia; 22-25 set 2013; Porto de Galinhas (PE), BR.), a similar performance was also observed in the second school years of public and private schools, followed by a widening gap in performance between the types of school from the 3rd to 5th years, with PV children having better performance, which appears to confirm the hypothesis that these types of errors are more specific in PV.
Word junctions and hypersegmentations are less frequently reported in studies
about writing in primary education(2828 . Capellini SA, Butarelli APKJ, Germano GD. Dificuldades de
aprendizagem da escrita em escolares de 1a. 4a. séries do ensino público. Rev
Educ Questão. 2010;37(23):146-64.). These types of writing anomalies can be observed in
texts, sentences or syntagmas. The assessments made by means of isolated item
dictation do not expose them. The results in this study have shown that
voiced-voiceless swaps, present in the writing of isolated items, may be
associated with other errors connected to the perception of prosodic
constituents of words or sentences(11 . Cunha APN, Miranda ARM. A influência da hierarquia prosódica em
hipossegmentações da escrita de crianças de séries iniciais. Rev Virtual Estud
Ling [internet]. 2007 [acesso em: 23 mar 2014];5(1) [19 p.]. Disponível em:
http://www.revel.inf.br/files/artigos/revel_esp_1_a_influencia_da_hierarquia_prosodica.pdf
http://www.revel.inf.br/files/artigos/re...
,2727 . Cunha APND, Miranda ARM. A hipo e a hipersegmentação nos dados de
aquisição de escrita: a influência da prosódia. Alfa.
2009;53(1):127-48.), indicating
the need to stimulate the perception of phonological components of different
linguistic structures.
CONCLUSION
In comparison with private school students, students from public schools presented more voiced and voiceless phonemes coding, hypersegmentation and word junction errors. The study of the correlations between the three types of errors showed different patterns in the two school types. In the PU data, coding of voiced and voiceless phonemes and hypersegmentation were positively correlated. A probable deficit in the phonological perception of constituents that was lower in the phonological hierarchy might have influenced the public school students’ performance. In the PV data, deficits in the perception of the phonological word, phonological phrase and intonational phrase, constituents at higher levels in the phonological hierarchy, may have influenced the correlations between the errors in coding voiced and voiceless phonemes and word junctions. Only for private school students could the errors in coding voiced and voiceless phonemes predict hypersegmentation and word junction errors.
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27Cunha APND, Miranda ARM. A hipo e a hipersegmentação nos dados de aquisição de escrita: a influência da prosódia. Alfa. 2009;53(1):127-48.
-
28Capellini SA, Butarelli APKJ, Germano GD. Dificuldades de aprendizagem da escrita em escolares de 1a. 4a. séries do ensino público. Rev Educ Questão. 2010;37(23):146-64.
-
Study conducted at the Department of Speech-Language, Pathology and Audiology, Universidade Federal de São Paulo – UNIFESP – São Paulo (SP), Brazil.
Publication Dates
-
Publication in this collection
Sept 2014
History
-
Received
1 Nov 2013 -
Accepted
23 Apr 2014