Acessibilidade / Reportar erro

Função Endotelial e Insuficiência Cardíaca. Começo ou Fim de Uma Disfunção Prestes a Surgir

Palavras-chave
Endotélio/fisiopatologia; Insuficiência Cardíaca; Volume Sistólico; Óxido Nítrico

Introdução

O endotélio regula a função cardíaca e o tônus vasomotor, ajusta a permeabilidade vascular, preserva a fluidez sanguínea, desempenhando um papel importante na homeostase cardiovascular.11 Brutsaert DL. Cardiac endothelial-myocardial signaling: its role in cardiac growth, contractile performance, and rhythmicity. Physiol Rev. 2003;83(1):59-115.,22 Marti CN, Gheorghiade M, Kalogeropoulos AP, Georgiopoulou VV, Quyyumi AA, Butler J. Endothelial Dysfunction, Arterial Stiffness, and Heart Failure. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012;60(16):1455-69 Em adultos com insuficiência cardíaca (IC), a severidade da disfunção endotelial está relacionada à disfunção diastólica,33 Mesquita ET. Socrates J. Rassi S. Villacorta H. Mady C. Insuficiência cardíaca com função sistólica preservada. Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia. 2004; 82(4):494-500.,44 Verma S, Anderson TJ. Fundamentals of endothelial function for the clinical cardiologist. Circulation. 2002;105(5):546-9. aumento do risco cardiovascular,55 O'Rourke MF, Mancia G. Arterial stiffness. J Hypertens. 1999; 17(1):1-4.

6 Anderson TJ, Uehata A, Gerhard MD. Close relation of endothelial function in the human coronary and peripheral circulations. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1995;26(5):1235-41.

7 Pena AS, Wiltshire E, MacKenzie K, Gent R, Piotto L, Hirte C. Vascular endothelial and smooth muscle function relates to body mass index and glucose in obese and nonobese children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91(11):4467-71

8 Aggoun Y, Farpour-Lambert NJ, Marchand LM, Golay E, Maggio AB, Beghetti M. Impaired endothelial and smooth muscle functions and arterial stiffness appear before puberty in obese children and are associated with elevated ambulatory blood pressure. Eur Heart J. 2008;29(6):792-9.

9 Tavares AC, Bocchi EA, Guimarães GV (2012) Endothelial function in pre-pubertal children at risk of developing cardiomyopathy: a new frontier. Clinics. 2011;67(3):273-8.
-1010 Anderson TJ. Arterial stiffness or endothelial dysfunction as a surrogate marker of vascular risk. Can J Cardiol. 2006;22(Suppl B):72B-80B. insuficiência cardíaca,1111 Carolyn SP, Lam MBBS, Dirk L, Brutsaert. Endothelial dysfunction. A pathophysiologic factor in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012;60(18):1787-9.,1212 Widlansky ME, Gokce N, Keaney JF, Vita JA. The Clinical implications of endothelial dysfunction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;42(7):1149-60. incapacidade de praticar exercícios,1313 Bauersachs J, Widder JD. Endothelial dysfunction in heart failure. Pharmacol Reports. 2008;60(1):119-26. gravidade dos sintomas cardiovasculares,66 Anderson TJ, Uehata A, Gerhard MD. Close relation of endothelial function in the human coronary and peripheral circulations. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1995;26(5):1235-41.,77 Pena AS, Wiltshire E, MacKenzie K, Gent R, Piotto L, Hirte C. Vascular endothelial and smooth muscle function relates to body mass index and glucose in obese and nonobese children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91(11):4467-71,1010 Anderson TJ. Arterial stiffness or endothelial dysfunction as a surrogate marker of vascular risk. Can J Cardiol. 2006;22(Suppl B):72B-80B.,1414 Maxwell AJ, Schauble E, Bernstein D, Cooke JP. Limb blood flow during exercise is dependent on nitric oxide. Circulation. 1998;98(4):369-74.,1515 Nichols WW, Denardo SJ, Wilkinson IB, McEniery CM, Cockcroft J, O'Rourke MF. Effects of arterial stiffness, pulse wave velocity, and wave reflections on the central aortic pressure waveform. J Clin Hypertens. 2008;10(4): 295-303. eventos cardiovasculares,1616 Akiyama E, Sugiyama S, Matsuzawa Y. Incremental prognostic significance of peripheral endothelial dysfunction in patients with heart failure with normal left ventricular ejection fraction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012;60(18):1778-86. transplante cardíaco e óbito.1717 Fischer D, Rossa S, Landmesser U, Spiekermann S, Engberding N, Hornig B, et al. Endothelial dysfunction in patients with chronic heart failure is independently associated with increased incidence of hospitalization, cardiac transplantation, or death. Eur Heart J. 2005;26(1):65-9.,1818 Nurnberger J, Keflioglu-Scheiber A, Opazo Saez AM, Wenzel RR, Philipp T, Schafers RF. Schafersa Augmentation index is associated with cardiovascular risk. J Hypertens. 2002,20(12):2407-.14

Embora o endotélio encontre-se na interface entre os fatores cardiovasculares circundantes e os tecidos dos órgãos subjacentes, as disfunções cardiovasculares e endoteliais periféricas não se encontram totalmente relacionadas até o momento.1818 Nurnberger J, Keflioglu-Scheiber A, Opazo Saez AM, Wenzel RR, Philipp T, Schafers RF. Schafersa Augmentation index is associated with cardiovascular risk. J Hypertens. 2002,20(12):2407-.14

19 Laurent S, Cockcroft J. Bortel LV, Boutouyrie P, Giannattasio G, Hayoz D. Expert consensus document on arterial stiffness. Methodological issues and clinical applications. Eur Heart J. 2006;27(21):2588-605.
-2020 Dutra OP, Besser HW, Tridapalli H, Leiria TL, Afiune Neto A,Simão AF; Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia. II Brazilian guideline for severe hearat disease. Arq Bras Cardiol.2006;87(2):223-32. A avaliação da função endotelial aparece como um fator coadjuvante tentador para a estratificação do risco cardiovascular1616 Akiyama E, Sugiyama S, Matsuzawa Y. Incremental prognostic significance of peripheral endothelial dysfunction in patients with heart failure with normal left ventricular ejection fraction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012;60(18):1778-86. e a compreensão desse assunto pode ajudar a promover uma abordagem mais ágil e melhorar a triagem no campo das cardiomiopatias na prática clínica diária, o que justifica a importância deste artigo.

O objetivo deste estudo foi realizar uma interpretação do desenvolvimento da função endotelial em pacientes com IC.

Métodos

Diferentes bases de dados (PubMed e Medline) foram pesquisadas ​​para identificar as características sobre a avaliação da função endotelial nas circulações coronária e periférica como uma forma de explicar melhor a relação entre a disfunção endotelial e a insuficiência cardíaca.

Resultados

A insuficiência cardíaca representa a incapacidade do coração de realizar débito cardíaco suficiente para satisfazer todas as demandas,33 Mesquita ET. Socrates J. Rassi S. Villacorta H. Mady C. Insuficiência cardíaca com função sistólica preservada. Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia. 2004; 82(4):494-500.,2020 Dutra OP, Besser HW, Tridapalli H, Leiria TL, Afiune Neto A,Simão AF; Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia. II Brazilian guideline for severe hearat disease. Arq Bras Cardiol.2006;87(2):223-32.,2121 Dod HS, Bhardwaj R, Sajja V, Weidner G, Hobbs GR, Konat GW, et al. Effect of Intensive Lifestyle Changes on Endothelial Function and on Inflammatory Markers of Atherosclerosis. J Cardiol. 2010;105(3):362-7. seja com fração de ejeção preservada ou não.88 Aggoun Y, Farpour-Lambert NJ, Marchand LM, Golay E, Maggio AB, Beghetti M. Impaired endothelial and smooth muscle functions and arterial stiffness appear before puberty in obese children and are associated with elevated ambulatory blood pressure. Eur Heart J. 2008;29(6):792-9.,1616 Akiyama E, Sugiyama S, Matsuzawa Y. Incremental prognostic significance of peripheral endothelial dysfunction in patients with heart failure with normal left ventricular ejection fraction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012;60(18):1778-86.

Há diversos possíveis mecanismos pelos quais a disfunção endotelial pode contribuir para a progressão da doença em pacientes com insuficiência cardíaca (IC). Pacientes adultos com IC enquadrados na classe funcional II-III da New York Heart Association (NYHA) e com disfunção endotelial mais grave teriam maior incidência de hospitalização devido à descompensação da IC, transplante cardíaco ou óbito, devido a causas cardíacas em seguimento de um ano em comparação com aqueles com relaxamento dependente do endotélio relativamente preservado.1717 Fischer D, Rossa S, Landmesser U, Spiekermann S, Engberding N, Hornig B, et al. Endothelial dysfunction in patients with chronic heart failure is independently associated with increased incidence of hospitalization, cardiac transplantation, or death. Eur Heart J. 2005;26(1):65-9.

No entanto, pode ser uma disfunção de ciclo e não se sabe se a disfunção endotelial é a causa ou a consequência da insuficiência cardíaca (Figura 1).77 Pena AS, Wiltshire E, MacKenzie K, Gent R, Piotto L, Hirte C. Vascular endothelial and smooth muscle function relates to body mass index and glucose in obese and nonobese children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91(11):4467-71

8 Aggoun Y, Farpour-Lambert NJ, Marchand LM, Golay E, Maggio AB, Beghetti M. Impaired endothelial and smooth muscle functions and arterial stiffness appear before puberty in obese children and are associated with elevated ambulatory blood pressure. Eur Heart J. 2008;29(6):792-9.

9 Tavares AC, Bocchi EA, Guimarães GV (2012) Endothelial function in pre-pubertal children at risk of developing cardiomyopathy: a new frontier. Clinics. 2011;67(3):273-8.

10 Anderson TJ. Arterial stiffness or endothelial dysfunction as a surrogate marker of vascular risk. Can J Cardiol. 2006;22(Suppl B):72B-80B.

11 Carolyn SP, Lam MBBS, Dirk L, Brutsaert. Endothelial dysfunction. A pathophysiologic factor in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012;60(18):1787-9.

12 Widlansky ME, Gokce N, Keaney JF, Vita JA. The Clinical implications of endothelial dysfunction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;42(7):1149-60.

13 Bauersachs J, Widder JD. Endothelial dysfunction in heart failure. Pharmacol Reports. 2008;60(1):119-26.

14 Maxwell AJ, Schauble E, Bernstein D, Cooke JP. Limb blood flow during exercise is dependent on nitric oxide. Circulation. 1998;98(4):369-74.

15 Nichols WW, Denardo SJ, Wilkinson IB, McEniery CM, Cockcroft J, O'Rourke MF. Effects of arterial stiffness, pulse wave velocity, and wave reflections on the central aortic pressure waveform. J Clin Hypertens. 2008;10(4): 295-303.

16 Akiyama E, Sugiyama S, Matsuzawa Y. Incremental prognostic significance of peripheral endothelial dysfunction in patients with heart failure with normal left ventricular ejection fraction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012;60(18):1778-86.

17 Fischer D, Rossa S, Landmesser U, Spiekermann S, Engberding N, Hornig B, et al. Endothelial dysfunction in patients with chronic heart failure is independently associated with increased incidence of hospitalization, cardiac transplantation, or death. Eur Heart J. 2005;26(1):65-9.

18 Nurnberger J, Keflioglu-Scheiber A, Opazo Saez AM, Wenzel RR, Philipp T, Schafers RF. Schafersa Augmentation index is associated with cardiovascular risk. J Hypertens. 2002,20(12):2407-.14

19 Laurent S, Cockcroft J. Bortel LV, Boutouyrie P, Giannattasio G, Hayoz D. Expert consensus document on arterial stiffness. Methodological issues and clinical applications. Eur Heart J. 2006;27(21):2588-605.

20 Dutra OP, Besser HW, Tridapalli H, Leiria TL, Afiune Neto A,Simão AF; Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia. II Brazilian guideline for severe hearat disease. Arq Bras Cardiol.2006;87(2):223-32.

21 Dod HS, Bhardwaj R, Sajja V, Weidner G, Hobbs GR, Konat GW, et al. Effect of Intensive Lifestyle Changes on Endothelial Function and on Inflammatory Markers of Atherosclerosis. J Cardiol. 2010;105(3):362-7.

22 Towbin JA. Lowe AM. Colan SD. Sleeper LA. Orav EJ. Clunie J. et. al. Incidence, causes, and outcomes of dilated cardiomyopathy in children. JAMA. 2006;296(15):1867-76.

23 Schachinger V, Britten MB, Zeiher AM. Prognostic impact of coronary vasodilator dysfunction on adverse long-term outcome of coronary heart disease, Circulation. 2000;101(16):1899-906.

24 Hambrecht R, Fiehn E, Weigl C, Gielen S, Hamann C, Kaiser R, et al. Regular physical exercise corrects endothelial dysfunction and improves exercise capacity in patients with chronic heart failure. Circulation. 1998;98(24):2709-15.

25 Buus NH, Bottcher M, Hermansen F, Sander M, Nielsen TT, Mulvany MJ Influence of nitric oxide synthase and adrenergic inhibition on adenosine-induced myocardial hyperemia. Circulation. 2001;104(19):2305-10.

26 Hornig B, Maier V, Drexler H. Physical training improves endothelial function in patients with chronic heart failure. Circulation. 1996;93(2):210-4.

27 Neglia D, Parodi O, Gallopin M, Sambuceti G, Giorgetti A, Pratali L, et al. Myocardial blood flow response to pacing tachycardia and to dipyridamole infusion in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy without overt heart failure. A quantitative assessment by positron emission tomography. Circulation. 1995;92(4):796-804.

28 Bassenge E. Endothelial function in different organs. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 1996;39(3):209 -28.

29 Murohara T, Asahara T, Silver M, Bauters C, Masuda H, Kalka C, et al. Nitric oxide synthase modulates angiogenesis in response to tissue ischemia. J. Clin Invest. 1998;101(11):2567-78.

30 Mc Namara DM, Holubkov R, Postava L, Ramani R, Janosko K, Mathier M, et al. Effect of the Asp298 variant of endothelial nitric oxide synthase on survival for patients with congestive heart failure. Circulation. 2003;107(12):1598-602.

31 Jones SP, Greer JJM, van Haperen R, Duncker DJ, de Crom R, Lefer DJ. Endothelial nitric oxide synthase overexpression attenuates congestive heart failure in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2003; 100(8):4891-6.

32 Moncada S, Palmer RM, Higgs EA. Nitric oxide: physiology, pathophysiology, and pharmacology. Pharmacol Rev. 1991;43(2):109-42.

33 Boutouyrie P, Lacolley P, Girerd X, Beck L, Safar M, Laurent S. Sympathetic activation decreases medium-sized arterial compliance in humans. Am J Physiol. 1994;267(4 Pt 2):H1368-76.

34 Lepori M, Sartori C, Duplain H, Nicod P, Scherrer U. Interaction between cholinergic and nitrergic vasodilation: a novel mechanism of blood pressure control. Cardiovasc Res. 2001;51(4):767-72.

35 Rajagopalan S, Kurz S, Munzel T, Tarpey M, Freeman BA, Griendling KK, et al. Angiotensin IImediated hypertension in the rat increases vascular superoxide production via membrane NADH/NADPH oxidase activation. Contribution to alterations of vasomotor tone. J Clin Invest. 1996;97(8):1916-23.

36 Takeda Y, Miyamori I, Yoneda T, Hatakeyama H, Inaba S, Furukawa K, et al. Regulation of aldosterone synthase in human vascular endothelial cells by angiotensin II and adrenocorticotropin. J Clin Endocrinol Metab.1996;81(8):2797-800.

37 Farquharson CA, Struthers AD: Aldosterone induces acute endothelial dysfunction in vivo in humans: evidence for an aldosterone-induced vasculopathy. Clin Sci (Lond), 2002;103(4):425-31.

38 Giordano FJ, Gerber HP, Williams SP, Van Bruggen N, Bunting S, Ruiz-Lozano P, et al. A cardiac myocyte vascular endothelial growth factor paracrine pathway is required to maintain cardiac function. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2001;98(10):5780-5.

39 Wilkinson IB, MacCallum H, Flint L, Cockcroft JR, Newby DE, Webb DJ. The influence of heart rate on augmentation index and central arterial pressure in humans. J Physiol. 2000;525(Pt 1):263-70.

40 Haywood GA, Tsao PS, von der Leyen HE, Mann MJ, Keeling PJ, Trindade PT, et al. Expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase in human heart failure. Circulation.1996;93(6):1087-94.

41 Ichiki T, Usui M, Kato M, Funakoshi Y, Ito K, Egashira K, et al. Downregulation of angiotensin II type 1 receptor gene transcription by nitric oxide. Hypertension. 1998;31(1 Pt 2) :342-8.

42 MacCarthy PA, Shah AM. Impaired endothelium-dependent regulation of ventricular relaxation in pressure-overload cardiac hypertrophy. Circulation. 2000;101(15):1854-60.

43 Hughes AD, Parker KH. Forward and backward waves in the arterial system: impedance or wave intensity analysis. Med Biol Eng Comput. 2009;47(2):207-10.
-4444 Scherrer-Crosbie M, Ullrich R, Bloch KD, Nakajima H, Nasseri B Aretz HT, et al. Endothelial nitric oxide synthase limits left ventricular remodeling after myocardial infarction in mice. Circulation. 2001;104(11):1286-91.

Figura 1
Representação do ciclo de disfunção entre a insuficiência cardíaca e a disfunção endotelial ↑ aumento; ↓ diminuição; ECA: enzima conversora da angiotensina; O2 - O2-radical; NOS: enzima óxido nítrico-sintase; ON: óxido nítrico.

Alterações na disponibilidade de óxido nítrico (ON) derivado do endotélio contribuem para essa resposta vasodilatadora anormal a estímulos fisiológicos77 Pena AS, Wiltshire E, MacKenzie K, Gent R, Piotto L, Hirte C. Vascular endothelial and smooth muscle function relates to body mass index and glucose in obese and nonobese children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91(11):4467-71,1717 Fischer D, Rossa S, Landmesser U, Spiekermann S, Engberding N, Hornig B, et al. Endothelial dysfunction in patients with chronic heart failure is independently associated with increased incidence of hospitalization, cardiac transplantation, or death. Eur Heart J. 2005;26(1):65-9.,2020 Dutra OP, Besser HW, Tridapalli H, Leiria TL, Afiune Neto A,Simão AF; Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia. II Brazilian guideline for severe hearat disease. Arq Bras Cardiol.2006;87(2):223-32. na insuficiência cardíaca, tanto na circulação coronária quanto na periférica.1313 Bauersachs J, Widder JD. Endothelial dysfunction in heart failure. Pharmacol Reports. 2008;60(1):119-26.,1414 Maxwell AJ, Schauble E, Bernstein D, Cooke JP. Limb blood flow during exercise is dependent on nitric oxide. Circulation. 1998;98(4):369-74.,2323 Schachinger V, Britten MB, Zeiher AM. Prognostic impact of coronary vasodilator dysfunction on adverse long-term outcome of coronary heart disease, Circulation. 2000;101(16):1899-906.

24 Hambrecht R, Fiehn E, Weigl C, Gielen S, Hamann C, Kaiser R, et al. Regular physical exercise corrects endothelial dysfunction and improves exercise capacity in patients with chronic heart failure. Circulation. 1998;98(24):2709-15.

25 Buus NH, Bottcher M, Hermansen F, Sander M, Nielsen TT, Mulvany MJ Influence of nitric oxide synthase and adrenergic inhibition on adenosine-induced myocardial hyperemia. Circulation. 2001;104(19):2305-10.

26 Hornig B, Maier V, Drexler H. Physical training improves endothelial function in patients with chronic heart failure. Circulation. 1996;93(2):210-4.

27 Neglia D, Parodi O, Gallopin M, Sambuceti G, Giorgetti A, Pratali L, et al. Myocardial blood flow response to pacing tachycardia and to dipyridamole infusion in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy without overt heart failure. A quantitative assessment by positron emission tomography. Circulation. 1995;92(4):796-804.
-2828 Bassenge E. Endothelial function in different organs. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 1996;39(3):209 -28.

Sobre essa questão, é interessante observar também que um polimorfismo comum da sintase endotelial de óxido nítrico (eNOS) mostra aumento da resposta vasoconstritora,1414 Maxwell AJ, Schauble E, Bernstein D, Cooke JP. Limb blood flow during exercise is dependent on nitric oxide. Circulation. 1998;98(4):369-74.,2424 Hambrecht R, Fiehn E, Weigl C, Gielen S, Hamann C, Kaiser R, et al. Regular physical exercise corrects endothelial dysfunction and improves exercise capacity in patients with chronic heart failure. Circulation. 1998;98(24):2709-15.,2929 Murohara T, Asahara T, Silver M, Bauters C, Masuda H, Kalka C, et al. Nitric oxide synthase modulates angiogenesis in response to tissue ischemia. J. Clin Invest. 1998;101(11):2567-78. que pode estar associada à diminuição da atividade da sintase de óxido nítrico (NOS). Esse polimorfismo está associado à piora da sobrevida livre de eventos e desfechos clínicos que refletem a progressão da doença em pacientes com insuficiência cardíaca.3030 Mc Namara DM, Holubkov R, Postava L, Ramani R, Janosko K, Mathier M, et al. Effect of the Asp298 variant of endothelial nitric oxide synthase on survival for patients with congestive heart failure. Circulation. 2003;107(12):1598-602.

31 Jones SP, Greer JJM, van Haperen R, Duncker DJ, de Crom R, Lefer DJ. Endothelial nitric oxide synthase overexpression attenuates congestive heart failure in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2003; 100(8):4891-6.
-3232 Moncada S, Palmer RM, Higgs EA. Nitric oxide: physiology, pathophysiology, and pharmacology. Pharmacol Rev. 1991;43(2):109-42.

Portanto, a disfunção endotelial pode contribuir sistemicamente para o tônus simpático,3333 Boutouyrie P, Lacolley P, Girerd X, Beck L, Safar M, Laurent S. Sympathetic activation decreases medium-sized arterial compliance in humans. Am J Physiol. 1994;267(4 Pt 2):H1368-76.

34 Lepori M, Sartori C, Duplain H, Nicod P, Scherrer U. Interaction between cholinergic and nitrergic vasodilation: a novel mechanism of blood pressure control. Cardiovasc Res. 2001;51(4):767-72.

35 Rajagopalan S, Kurz S, Munzel T, Tarpey M, Freeman BA, Griendling KK, et al. Angiotensin IImediated hypertension in the rat increases vascular superoxide production via membrane NADH/NADPH oxidase activation. Contribution to alterations of vasomotor tone. J Clin Invest. 1996;97(8):1916-23.

36 Takeda Y, Miyamori I, Yoneda T, Hatakeyama H, Inaba S, Furukawa K, et al. Regulation of aldosterone synthase in human vascular endothelial cells by angiotensin II and adrenocorticotropin. J Clin Endocrinol Metab.1996;81(8):2797-800.
-3737 Farquharson CA, Struthers AD: Aldosterone induces acute endothelial dysfunction in vivo in humans: evidence for an aldosterone-induced vasculopathy. Clin Sci (Lond), 2002;103(4):425-31. o que contribui para a intolerância ao exercício,1414 Maxwell AJ, Schauble E, Bernstein D, Cooke JP. Limb blood flow during exercise is dependent on nitric oxide. Circulation. 1998;98(4):369-74.,2626 Hornig B, Maier V, Drexler H. Physical training improves endothelial function in patients with chronic heart failure. Circulation. 1996;93(2):210-4.,4040 Haywood GA, Tsao PS, von der Leyen HE, Mann MJ, Keeling PJ, Trindade PT, et al. Expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase in human heart failure. Circulation.1996;93(6):1087-94. redução da densidade capilar do músculo cardíaco,3838 Giordano FJ, Gerber HP, Williams SP, Van Bruggen N, Bunting S, Ruiz-Lozano P, et al. A cardiac myocyte vascular endothelial growth factor paracrine pathway is required to maintain cardiac function. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2001;98(10):5780-5. alteração da perfusão miocárdica,1414 Maxwell AJ, Schauble E, Bernstein D, Cooke JP. Limb blood flow during exercise is dependent on nitric oxide. Circulation. 1998;98(4):369-74.,3939 Wilkinson IB, MacCallum H, Flint L, Cockcroft JR, Newby DE, Webb DJ. The influence of heart rate on augmentation index and central arterial pressure in humans. J Physiol. 2000;525(Pt 1):263-70. inibição da contratilidade miocárdica,4040 Haywood GA, Tsao PS, von der Leyen HE, Mann MJ, Keeling PJ, Trindade PT, et al. Expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase in human heart failure. Circulation.1996;93(6):1087-94. alteração do consumo de oxigênio pelo miocárdio,4040 Haywood GA, Tsao PS, von der Leyen HE, Mann MJ, Keeling PJ, Trindade PT, et al. Expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase in human heart failure. Circulation.1996;93(6):1087-94. alteração do relaxamento ventricular esquerdo na hipertrofia de sobrecarga de pressão,4141 Ichiki T, Usui M, Kato M, Funakoshi Y, Ito K, Egashira K, et al. Downregulation of angiotensin II type 1 receptor gene transcription by nitric oxide. Hypertension. 1998;31(1 Pt 2) :342-8. pós-carga cardíaca aumentada,1414 Maxwell AJ, Schauble E, Bernstein D, Cooke JP. Limb blood flow during exercise is dependent on nitric oxide. Circulation. 1998;98(4):369-74.,2222 Towbin JA. Lowe AM. Colan SD. Sleeper LA. Orav EJ. Clunie J. et. al. Incidence, causes, and outcomes of dilated cardiomyopathy in children. JAMA. 2006;296(15):1867-76.,2525 Buus NH, Bottcher M, Hermansen F, Sander M, Nielsen TT, Mulvany MJ Influence of nitric oxide synthase and adrenergic inhibition on adenosine-induced myocardial hyperemia. Circulation. 2001;104(19):2305-10.

26 Hornig B, Maier V, Drexler H. Physical training improves endothelial function in patients with chronic heart failure. Circulation. 1996;93(2):210-4.
-2727 Neglia D, Parodi O, Gallopin M, Sambuceti G, Giorgetti A, Pratali L, et al. Myocardial blood flow response to pacing tachycardia and to dipyridamole infusion in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy without overt heart failure. A quantitative assessment by positron emission tomography. Circulation. 1995;92(4):796-804. remodelação ventricular esquerda na IC,1414 Maxwell AJ, Schauble E, Bernstein D, Cooke JP. Limb blood flow during exercise is dependent on nitric oxide. Circulation. 1998;98(4):369-74.,2929 Murohara T, Asahara T, Silver M, Bauters C, Masuda H, Kalka C, et al. Nitric oxide synthase modulates angiogenesis in response to tissue ischemia. J. Clin Invest. 1998;101(11):2567-78.,3131 Jones SP, Greer JJM, van Haperen R, Duncker DJ, de Crom R, Lefer DJ. Endothelial nitric oxide synthase overexpression attenuates congestive heart failure in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2003; 100(8):4891-6.,4242 MacCarthy PA, Shah AM. Impaired endothelium-dependent regulation of ventricular relaxation in pressure-overload cardiac hypertrophy. Circulation. 2000;101(15):1854-60.,4343 Hughes AD, Parker KH. Forward and backward waves in the arterial system: impedance or wave intensity analysis. Med Biol Eng Comput. 2009;47(2):207-10. e elevação adicional do dano miocárdico.1414 Maxwell AJ, Schauble E, Bernstein D, Cooke JP. Limb blood flow during exercise is dependent on nitric oxide. Circulation. 1998;98(4):369-74.,2525 Buus NH, Bottcher M, Hermansen F, Sander M, Nielsen TT, Mulvany MJ Influence of nitric oxide synthase and adrenergic inhibition on adenosine-induced myocardial hyperemia. Circulation. 2001;104(19):2305-10.,2727 Neglia D, Parodi O, Gallopin M, Sambuceti G, Giorgetti A, Pratali L, et al. Myocardial blood flow response to pacing tachycardia and to dipyridamole infusion in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy without overt heart failure. A quantitative assessment by positron emission tomography. Circulation. 1995;92(4):796-804.,2828 Bassenge E. Endothelial function in different organs. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 1996;39(3):209 -28.,3131 Jones SP, Greer JJM, van Haperen R, Duncker DJ, de Crom R, Lefer DJ. Endothelial nitric oxide synthase overexpression attenuates congestive heart failure in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2003; 100(8):4891-6.,3838 Giordano FJ, Gerber HP, Williams SP, Van Bruggen N, Bunting S, Ruiz-Lozano P, et al. A cardiac myocyte vascular endothelial growth factor paracrine pathway is required to maintain cardiac function. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2001;98(10):5780-5.,4343 Hughes AD, Parker KH. Forward and backward waves in the arterial system: impedance or wave intensity analysis. Med Biol Eng Comput. 2009;47(2):207-10.,4444 Scherrer-Crosbie M, Ullrich R, Bloch KD, Nakajima H, Nasseri B Aretz HT, et al. Endothelial nitric oxide synthase limits left ventricular remodeling after myocardial infarction in mice. Circulation. 2001;104(11):1286-91.

Estudos experimentais e clínicos têm fornecido novos dados sobre os mecanismos de aspectos específicos da função endotelial. Portanto, um possível mecanismo da disfunção endotelial é a alteração dos mecanismos de sinalização envolvidos na ativação da eNOS.4545 Lee WH, Hwang TH, Oh GT, Kwon SU, Choi YH, Park JE. Genetic factors associated with endothelial dysfunction affect the early onset of coronary artery disease in Korean males. Vasc Med. 2001;6(2):103-8.

Algumas abordagens inovadoras em pacientes com polimorfismos ou mutações genéticas que podem desempenhar um papel patogênico na disfunção endotelial investigam a relação entre fatores genéticos associados à função endotelial e o desenvolvimento de alterações cardíacas.4545 Lee WH, Hwang TH, Oh GT, Kwon SU, Choi YH, Park JE. Genetic factors associated with endothelial dysfunction affect the early onset of coronary artery disease in Korean males. Vasc Med. 2001;6(2):103-8.

46 da Silva CG, Specht A, Wegiel B, Ferran C, Kaczmarek E. Mechanism of purinergic activation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase in endothelial cells. Circulation. 2009;119(6):871-9.

47 Menghini R, Casagrande V, Cardellini M, Martelli E, Terrinoni A, Amati F, et al. MicroRNA 217 modulates endothelial cell senescence viasilent information regulator 1. Circulation. 2009;120(15):1524 -32.
-4848 Violi F, Sanguigni V, Carnevale R, Plebani A, Rossi P, Finocchi A, et al. Hereditary deficiency of gp91(phox) is associated with enhanced arterial dilatation: results of a multicenter study. Circulation. 2009;120(16): 1616-22.

O polimorfismo do gene ecNOS a/b e o polimorfismo C242T p22phox do dinucleótido de β-nicotinamida e adenina/fosfato de dinucleótido de β-nicotinamida e adenina (NADH/NADPH) oxidase estão significativamente associados ao desenvolvimento de DAC.4545 Lee WH, Hwang TH, Oh GT, Kwon SU, Choi YH, Park JE. Genetic factors associated with endothelial dysfunction affect the early onset of coronary artery disease in Korean males. Vasc Med. 2001;6(2):103-8.,4646 da Silva CG, Specht A, Wegiel B, Ferran C, Kaczmarek E. Mechanism of purinergic activation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase in endothelial cells. Circulation. 2009;119(6):871-9. No que diz respeito a esse assunto, os seguintes fatores reduzem a biodisponibilidade de ON: polimorfismos genéticos da eNOS,4747 Menghini R, Casagrande V, Cardellini M, Martelli E, Terrinoni A, Amati F, et al. MicroRNA 217 modulates endothelial cell senescence viasilent information regulator 1. Circulation. 2009;120(15):1524 -32. regulação positiva da matriz metaloproteinase-2,49 e níveis elevados de dimetilarginina, que é um antagonista competitivo da sintase endotelial de óxido nítrico (eNOS). Alguns estudos também reportam a regulação positiva do microRNA 217, deacetilase NAD-dependente, como sendo responsável pela alteração endotelial e diminuição da atividade da eNOS.4646 da Silva CG, Specht A, Wegiel B, Ferran C, Kaczmarek E. Mechanism of purinergic activation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase in endothelial cells. Circulation. 2009;119(6):871-9.

47 Menghini R, Casagrande V, Cardellini M, Martelli E, Terrinoni A, Amati F, et al. MicroRNA 217 modulates endothelial cell senescence viasilent information regulator 1. Circulation. 2009;120(15):1524 -32.

48 Violi F, Sanguigni V, Carnevale R, Plebani A, Rossi P, Finocchi A, et al. Hereditary deficiency of gp91(phox) is associated with enhanced arterial dilatation: results of a multicenter study. Circulation. 2009;120(16): 1616-22.

49 Ray R, Shah AM. NADPH oxidase and endothelial cell function. Clin Sci (Lond). 2005 Sep;109(3):217-26.
-5050 Carvalho MHC, Colaço AL, Fortes, ZB. Citocinas, disfunção endotelial e resistência à Insulina. Arq Bras Endocrinol Metab. 2006;50(2):304-12.

Outros fatores que também podem prejudicar a função endotelial, como a ativação da resposta ao estresse do retículo endoplasmático (RE).5151 Hummasti S, Hotamisligil GS. Endoplasmic reticulum stress and inflammation in obesity and diabetes. Circ Res. 2010;107(5):579 -91. alto estado pró-inflamatório, citocinas inflamatórias, tais como a E-selectina e P-selectina,5252 Ridker PM, Brown NJ, Vaughan DE, Harrison DG, Mehta JL. Established and emerging plasma biomarkers in the prediction of first atherothrombotic events. Circulation. 2004;109(29 Suppl 1):IV6-19.

53 Hwang SJ, Ballantyne CM, Sharrett AR, Smith LC, Davis CE, Gotto AM Jr, et al. Circulating adhesion molecules VCAM-1, ICAM-1, and E-selectin in carotid atherosclerosis and incident coronary heart disease cases: the Atherosclerosis Risk In Communities (ARIC) study. Circulation. 1997;96(12):4219-25.

54 Ridker PM, Hennekens CH, Roitman-Johnson B, Stampfer MJ, Allen J. Plasma concentration of soluble intercellular adhesion molecule 1 and risks of future myocardial infarction in apparently healthy men. Lancet. 1998;351(9096):88-92.
-5555 Vaughan DE. PAI-1 and atherothrombosis. J Thromb Haemost. 2005;3(8):1878-83. sobre-expressão do fator α de necrose tumoral, interleucina,66 Anderson TJ, Uehata A, Gerhard MD. Close relation of endothelial function in the human coronary and peripheral circulations. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1995;26(5):1235-41. altos níveis de inibidor do ativador do plasminogênio 1 (PAI-1),5656 Lovren F, Pan Y, Quan A, Singh KK, Shukla PC, Gupta M, et al. Adropin is a novel regulator of endothelial function. Circulation. 2010;122(11 Suppl):S185-S192. aumento da massa de tecido adiposo, redução dos níveis de adropina e redução dos níveis teciduais de 5-metiltetraidrofolato (5-MTHF)5656 Lovren F, Pan Y, Quan A, Singh KK, Shukla PC, Gupta M, et al. Adropin is a novel regulator of endothelial function. Circulation. 2010;122(11 Suppl):S185-S192.-5757 Antoniades C, Shirodaria C, Leeson P, Baarholm OA, Van Assche T, Cunnington C, et al. MTHFR 677 C_T polymorphism reveals functional importance for 5-methyltetrahydrofolate, not homocysteine, in regulation of vascular redox state and endothelial function in human atherosclerosis. Circulation. 2009;119(18):2507-15., estão correlacionados com insuficiência na vasodilatação endotélio-dependente.

Portanto, a disfunção endotelial é influenciada por diversos mecanismos correlatos, que promovem uma melhor compreensão do tema e também melhoram sua contribuição no campo cardiovascular (Figura 2).

Figura 2
Representação da disfunção do ciclo entre insuficiência cardíaca e disfunção endotelial com influências genéticas e outras influências ↑ aumento; ↓ redução; 5-MTHF: 5-metiltetrahidrofolato; ECA: enzima conversora da angiotensina; O2 - O2-radical; eNOS: sintase endotelial de óxido nítrico; RE: retículo endoplasmático; IL-6: interleucina 6; ON: óxido nítrico; PAI-1: inibidor do ativador de plasminogênio 1; TNF-∞: fator de necrose tumoral α; VEGFR2: receptor-2 do fator de crescimento endotelial vascular; NOS: enzima óxido nítrico-sintase; NADPH: fosfato de dinucleótido de β-nicotinamida eadenina.

Conclusão

Baixa resposta endotelial ao fluxo sanguíneo contribui para a disfunção cardíaca. O contrário também ocorre, envolvendo a disfunção cardíaca como início da alteração endotelial. Portanto, pode-se ter o envolvimento de uma disfunção de ciclo tanto nas alterações centrais quanto nas periféricas.

  • Fontes de Financiamento
    O presente estudo não teve fontes de financiamento externas.
  • Vinculação Acadêmica
    Não há vinculação deste estudo a programas de pós-graduação

References

  • 1
    Brutsaert DL. Cardiac endothelial-myocardial signaling: its role in cardiac growth, contractile performance, and rhythmicity. Physiol Rev. 2003;83(1):59-115.
  • 2
    Marti CN, Gheorghiade M, Kalogeropoulos AP, Georgiopoulou VV, Quyyumi AA, Butler J. Endothelial Dysfunction, Arterial Stiffness, and Heart Failure. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012;60(16):1455-69
  • 3
    Mesquita ET. Socrates J. Rassi S. Villacorta H. Mady C. Insuficiência cardíaca com função sistólica preservada. Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia. 2004; 82(4):494-500.
  • 4
    Verma S, Anderson TJ. Fundamentals of endothelial function for the clinical cardiologist. Circulation. 2002;105(5):546-9.
  • 5
    O'Rourke MF, Mancia G. Arterial stiffness. J Hypertens. 1999; 17(1):1-4.
  • 6
    Anderson TJ, Uehata A, Gerhard MD. Close relation of endothelial function in the human coronary and peripheral circulations. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1995;26(5):1235-41.
  • 7
    Pena AS, Wiltshire E, MacKenzie K, Gent R, Piotto L, Hirte C. Vascular endothelial and smooth muscle function relates to body mass index and glucose in obese and nonobese children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91(11):4467-71
  • 8
    Aggoun Y, Farpour-Lambert NJ, Marchand LM, Golay E, Maggio AB, Beghetti M. Impaired endothelial and smooth muscle functions and arterial stiffness appear before puberty in obese children and are associated with elevated ambulatory blood pressure. Eur Heart J. 2008;29(6):792-9.
  • 9
    Tavares AC, Bocchi EA, Guimarães GV (2012) Endothelial function in pre-pubertal children at risk of developing cardiomyopathy: a new frontier. Clinics. 2011;67(3):273-8.
  • 10
    Anderson TJ. Arterial stiffness or endothelial dysfunction as a surrogate marker of vascular risk. Can J Cardiol. 2006;22(Suppl B):72B-80B.
  • 11
    Carolyn SP, Lam MBBS, Dirk L, Brutsaert. Endothelial dysfunction. A pathophysiologic factor in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012;60(18):1787-9.
  • 12
    Widlansky ME, Gokce N, Keaney JF, Vita JA. The Clinical implications of endothelial dysfunction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;42(7):1149-60.
  • 13
    Bauersachs J, Widder JD. Endothelial dysfunction in heart failure. Pharmacol Reports. 2008;60(1):119-26.
  • 14
    Maxwell AJ, Schauble E, Bernstein D, Cooke JP. Limb blood flow during exercise is dependent on nitric oxide. Circulation. 1998;98(4):369-74.
  • 15
    Nichols WW, Denardo SJ, Wilkinson IB, McEniery CM, Cockcroft J, O'Rourke MF. Effects of arterial stiffness, pulse wave velocity, and wave reflections on the central aortic pressure waveform. J Clin Hypertens. 2008;10(4): 295-303.
  • 16
    Akiyama E, Sugiyama S, Matsuzawa Y. Incremental prognostic significance of peripheral endothelial dysfunction in patients with heart failure with normal left ventricular ejection fraction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012;60(18):1778-86.
  • 17
    Fischer D, Rossa S, Landmesser U, Spiekermann S, Engberding N, Hornig B, et al. Endothelial dysfunction in patients with chronic heart failure is independently associated with increased incidence of hospitalization, cardiac transplantation, or death. Eur Heart J. 2005;26(1):65-9.
  • 18
    Nurnberger J, Keflioglu-Scheiber A, Opazo Saez AM, Wenzel RR, Philipp T, Schafers RF. Schafersa Augmentation index is associated with cardiovascular risk. J Hypertens. 2002,20(12):2407-.14
  • 19
    Laurent S, Cockcroft J. Bortel LV, Boutouyrie P, Giannattasio G, Hayoz D. Expert consensus document on arterial stiffness. Methodological issues and clinical applications. Eur Heart J. 2006;27(21):2588-605.
  • 20
    Dutra OP, Besser HW, Tridapalli H, Leiria TL, Afiune Neto A,Simão AF; Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia. II Brazilian guideline for severe hearat disease. Arq Bras Cardiol.2006;87(2):223-32.
  • 21
    Dod HS, Bhardwaj R, Sajja V, Weidner G, Hobbs GR, Konat GW, et al. Effect of Intensive Lifestyle Changes on Endothelial Function and on Inflammatory Markers of Atherosclerosis. J Cardiol. 2010;105(3):362-7.
  • 22
    Towbin JA. Lowe AM. Colan SD. Sleeper LA. Orav EJ. Clunie J. et. al. Incidence, causes, and outcomes of dilated cardiomyopathy in children. JAMA. 2006;296(15):1867-76.
  • 23
    Schachinger V, Britten MB, Zeiher AM. Prognostic impact of coronary vasodilator dysfunction on adverse long-term outcome of coronary heart disease, Circulation. 2000;101(16):1899-906.
  • 24
    Hambrecht R, Fiehn E, Weigl C, Gielen S, Hamann C, Kaiser R, et al. Regular physical exercise corrects endothelial dysfunction and improves exercise capacity in patients with chronic heart failure. Circulation. 1998;98(24):2709-15.
  • 25
    Buus NH, Bottcher M, Hermansen F, Sander M, Nielsen TT, Mulvany MJ Influence of nitric oxide synthase and adrenergic inhibition on adenosine-induced myocardial hyperemia. Circulation. 2001;104(19):2305-10.
  • 26
    Hornig B, Maier V, Drexler H. Physical training improves endothelial function in patients with chronic heart failure. Circulation. 1996;93(2):210-4.
  • 27
    Neglia D, Parodi O, Gallopin M, Sambuceti G, Giorgetti A, Pratali L, et al. Myocardial blood flow response to pacing tachycardia and to dipyridamole infusion in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy without overt heart failure. A quantitative assessment by positron emission tomography. Circulation. 1995;92(4):796-804.
  • 28
    Bassenge E. Endothelial function in different organs. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 1996;39(3):209 -28.
  • 29
    Murohara T, Asahara T, Silver M, Bauters C, Masuda H, Kalka C, et al. Nitric oxide synthase modulates angiogenesis in response to tissue ischemia. J. Clin Invest. 1998;101(11):2567-78.
  • 30
    Mc Namara DM, Holubkov R, Postava L, Ramani R, Janosko K, Mathier M, et al. Effect of the Asp298 variant of endothelial nitric oxide synthase on survival for patients with congestive heart failure. Circulation. 2003;107(12):1598-602.
  • 31
    Jones SP, Greer JJM, van Haperen R, Duncker DJ, de Crom R, Lefer DJ. Endothelial nitric oxide synthase overexpression attenuates congestive heart failure in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2003; 100(8):4891-6.
  • 32
    Moncada S, Palmer RM, Higgs EA. Nitric oxide: physiology, pathophysiology, and pharmacology. Pharmacol Rev. 1991;43(2):109-42.
  • 33
    Boutouyrie P, Lacolley P, Girerd X, Beck L, Safar M, Laurent S. Sympathetic activation decreases medium-sized arterial compliance in humans. Am J Physiol. 1994;267(4 Pt 2):H1368-76.
  • 34
    Lepori M, Sartori C, Duplain H, Nicod P, Scherrer U. Interaction between cholinergic and nitrergic vasodilation: a novel mechanism of blood pressure control. Cardiovasc Res. 2001;51(4):767-72.
  • 35
    Rajagopalan S, Kurz S, Munzel T, Tarpey M, Freeman BA, Griendling KK, et al. Angiotensin IImediated hypertension in the rat increases vascular superoxide production via membrane NADH/NADPH oxidase activation. Contribution to alterations of vasomotor tone. J Clin Invest. 1996;97(8):1916-23.
  • 36
    Takeda Y, Miyamori I, Yoneda T, Hatakeyama H, Inaba S, Furukawa K, et al. Regulation of aldosterone synthase in human vascular endothelial cells by angiotensin II and adrenocorticotropin. J Clin Endocrinol Metab.1996;81(8):2797-800.
  • 37
    Farquharson CA, Struthers AD: Aldosterone induces acute endothelial dysfunction in vivo in humans: evidence for an aldosterone-induced vasculopathy. Clin Sci (Lond), 2002;103(4):425-31.
  • 38
    Giordano FJ, Gerber HP, Williams SP, Van Bruggen N, Bunting S, Ruiz-Lozano P, et al. A cardiac myocyte vascular endothelial growth factor paracrine pathway is required to maintain cardiac function. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2001;98(10):5780-5.
  • 39
    Wilkinson IB, MacCallum H, Flint L, Cockcroft JR, Newby DE, Webb DJ. The influence of heart rate on augmentation index and central arterial pressure in humans. J Physiol. 2000;525(Pt 1):263-70.
  • 40
    Haywood GA, Tsao PS, von der Leyen HE, Mann MJ, Keeling PJ, Trindade PT, et al. Expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase in human heart failure. Circulation.1996;93(6):1087-94.
  • 41
    Ichiki T, Usui M, Kato M, Funakoshi Y, Ito K, Egashira K, et al. Downregulation of angiotensin II type 1 receptor gene transcription by nitric oxide. Hypertension. 1998;31(1 Pt 2) :342-8.
  • 42
    MacCarthy PA, Shah AM. Impaired endothelium-dependent regulation of ventricular relaxation in pressure-overload cardiac hypertrophy. Circulation. 2000;101(15):1854-60.
  • 43
    Hughes AD, Parker KH. Forward and backward waves in the arterial system: impedance or wave intensity analysis. Med Biol Eng Comput. 2009;47(2):207-10.
  • 44
    Scherrer-Crosbie M, Ullrich R, Bloch KD, Nakajima H, Nasseri B Aretz HT, et al. Endothelial nitric oxide synthase limits left ventricular remodeling after myocardial infarction in mice. Circulation. 2001;104(11):1286-91.
  • 45
    Lee WH, Hwang TH, Oh GT, Kwon SU, Choi YH, Park JE. Genetic factors associated with endothelial dysfunction affect the early onset of coronary artery disease in Korean males. Vasc Med. 2001;6(2):103-8.
  • 46
    da Silva CG, Specht A, Wegiel B, Ferran C, Kaczmarek E. Mechanism of purinergic activation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase in endothelial cells. Circulation. 2009;119(6):871-9.
  • 47
    Menghini R, Casagrande V, Cardellini M, Martelli E, Terrinoni A, Amati F, et al. MicroRNA 217 modulates endothelial cell senescence viasilent information regulator 1. Circulation. 2009;120(15):1524 -32.
  • 48
    Violi F, Sanguigni V, Carnevale R, Plebani A, Rossi P, Finocchi A, et al. Hereditary deficiency of gp91(phox) is associated with enhanced arterial dilatation: results of a multicenter study. Circulation. 2009;120(16): 1616-22.
  • 49
    Ray R, Shah AM. NADPH oxidase and endothelial cell function. Clin Sci (Lond). 2005 Sep;109(3):217-26.
  • 50
    Carvalho MHC, Colaço AL, Fortes, ZB. Citocinas, disfunção endotelial e resistência à Insulina. Arq Bras Endocrinol Metab. 2006;50(2):304-12.
  • 51
    Hummasti S, Hotamisligil GS. Endoplasmic reticulum stress and inflammation in obesity and diabetes. Circ Res. 2010;107(5):579 -91.
  • 52
    Ridker PM, Brown NJ, Vaughan DE, Harrison DG, Mehta JL. Established and emerging plasma biomarkers in the prediction of first atherothrombotic events. Circulation. 2004;109(29 Suppl 1):IV6-19.
  • 53
    Hwang SJ, Ballantyne CM, Sharrett AR, Smith LC, Davis CE, Gotto AM Jr, et al. Circulating adhesion molecules VCAM-1, ICAM-1, and E-selectin in carotid atherosclerosis and incident coronary heart disease cases: the Atherosclerosis Risk In Communities (ARIC) study. Circulation. 1997;96(12):4219-25.
  • 54
    Ridker PM, Hennekens CH, Roitman-Johnson B, Stampfer MJ, Allen J. Plasma concentration of soluble intercellular adhesion molecule 1 and risks of future myocardial infarction in apparently healthy men. Lancet. 1998;351(9096):88-92.
  • 55
    Vaughan DE. PAI-1 and atherothrombosis. J Thromb Haemost. 2005;3(8):1878-83.
  • 56
    Lovren F, Pan Y, Quan A, Singh KK, Shukla PC, Gupta M, et al. Adropin is a novel regulator of endothelial function. Circulation. 2010;122(11 Suppl):S185-S192.
  • 57
    Antoniades C, Shirodaria C, Leeson P, Baarholm OA, Van Assche T, Cunnington C, et al. MTHFR 677 C_T polymorphism reveals functional importance for 5-methyltetrahydrofolate, not homocysteine, in regulation of vascular redox state and endothelial function in human atherosclerosis. Circulation. 2009;119(18):2507-15.

Datas de Publicação

  • Publicação nesta coleção
    Jul-Aug 2017

Histórico

  • Recebido
    17 Jun 2016
  • Revisado
    15 Ago 2016
  • Aceito
    24 Fev 2017
Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia Avenida Marechal Câmara, 160, sala: 330, Centro, CEP: 20020-907, (21) 3478-2700 - Rio de Janeiro - RJ - Brazil
E-mail: revistaijcs@cardiol.br