Zingiber: synonymy, accepted and excluded species

Zingiber: sinonímia, espécies aceitas e excluídas

Abstract

Among the species of the Zingiberaceae family, ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) is the best known and studied species, with several reported ornamental, medicinal, and culinary properties. Many ornamental species of the genus Zingiber are commonly treated as gingers by analogy. This study provides a list of species of the genus Zingiber, information on synonyms and comments on ornamental aspects.

Keywords:
botany; ginger; ornamental ginger; tropical plant; Zingiberaceae

Resumo

Dentre as espécies da família Zingiberaceae, o gengibre (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) é a espécie mais conhecida e estudada, com diversas propriedades ornamentais, medicinais e culinárias relatadas. Muitas espécies ornamentais do gênero Zingiber são comumente tratadas como gengibres por analogia. Este estudo fornece uma lista de espécies do gênero Zingiber, informações sobre sinônimos e comentários sobre aspectos ornamentais.

Palavras-chave:
botanica; gengibre; gengibre-ornamental,plantas tropicais; Zingiberaceae

Introduction

The Zingiberaceae family is the largest in the order Zingiberales, and has been under intense revision in recent years. The list of currently accepted names presents 57 genera and 1,746 species (POWO, 2023). The Zingiberaceae family is characterized by rhizomatous herbaceous plants, producing aromatic oils, distic alternate large leaves, peninerveous, invaginating base, cymose spike inflorescences, usually with attractive bracts, zygomorphic, trimerous, dychlamyid. The flowers are heterochlamyid, with three sepals, three petals, one fertile stamen, petaliform staminodes, partly coalescent in a lip, inferior ovary, usually trilocular, fruit capsule or berry and seeds usually with plumose aril. Although this family is pantropical, is better represented in tropical Asia (Banaticla-Hilario and Altamirano, 2023). In Brazil, occurs only a few species of Renealmia L.f. (Souza and Lorenzi 2008), and several species from other genera had been introduced, as medicinal, aromatic and ornamental.

Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) stands out among the economically important plants of the family. Z. officinale is the best known and studied species of the family, used as ingredient or flavoring agent in cooking, and for medicinal purposes, acting as a stimulant, antipyretic, carminative, and thermogenic. Many biological activities have already been reported, such as antimicrobial, anticancer, antioxidant, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, anti-obesity, anti-nausea, antiemetic, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, cardiovascular, and respiratory protection (Mao et al., 2019). Z. officinale is widely used as a medicinal plant for the treatment of throat, lung and flu disorders in general, and also as a digestive and thermogenic in Brazil. Belonging to the same family, turmeric or saffron (Curcuma longa L.), cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton) and several ornamental species, generally treated as ornamental gingers (e.g. Z. spectabile Griff.) also are cultivated (Anandaraj and Sudharshan, 2011).

The genus Zingiber, with over 200 species, is one of the largest within the family and was described by Philip Miller, in 1754 (Holttum, 1950, Theilade, 1998, Wu and Larsen, 2000). Zingiber is primarily characterized by the couplet leaves distributed in the same plane as the rhizome, the inflorescences generally in the shape of a cone formed by the relatively large bracts, the lip trilobed, the style much longer than the anther and the anther with a long crest with the edges close to the style like a curved beak. Each bract subtends a single flower; only Z. clarkei King ex Baker has 2-4 flowers on each bract. The bracts are frequently brightly colored and, in some species, change color when mature. The color of the lip is an important character of distinction; in some species it is cream or white, in others partially covered with dark pink, crimson or purple. The bracts almost always retain a lot of water, delimiting a mucilaginous area, and the flowers and fruits develop in this environment. Fruit dehiscence occurs while still surrounded by the bracts (Holttum, 1950). The presence of a simple anther with a crest or beak-shaped appendage that embraces the upper part of the style is the origin of the Sanskrit word that gives rise to the name of the genus (Chaveerach et al., 2007). The genus stands out in terms of contemporaneity and versatility, due to the different ways in which the species are used.

Several species of the genus have ornamental usage as cut flowers, garden or vase plants, mainly Z. spectabile Griff. (Beehive ginger), and to a lesser extent, Z. zerumbet (L.) Sm. (pinecone ginger, wild ginger), Z. ottensi Valeton and Z. newmanii Theilade & Mood (Castro et al., 2018) (Figure 1). Certainly, when the different species of Zingiber become more widespread and their cultivation expands, many other species will be able to be used, expanding the market for flowers and ornamental plant.

Figure 1
A. Z. zerumbet. B. Z. newmanii. C. Z. spectabile.D. Z. macradenium. E. Z. pseudopungens. F. Z. zerumbet. G. Z. ottensi. H. Z. ottensi. I. Different types of Z. spectabile.

The genus is native to tropical and subtropical Asia (POWO, 2023), in tropical to warm temperate regions, with greater diversity in monsoon areas (Kishor and Leong-Skornicková, 2013). Zingiber species have been reported to occur naturally in Bangladesh, Borneo, Cambodja, South Central and Southeast China, Hainan (China), East and West Himalayas, India, Andaman Islands (India), Assan (India), Nicobar Islands (India), Japan, Java (Indonesia), Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Nansei-shoto (Japan), New Guinea, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Sulawesi (Indonesia), Sumatra, Taiwan, Thailand and Vietnam (POWO, 2023).

The current infrageneric classification of Zingiber recognizes four sections, based on the nature and position of the inflorescence: (1) section Zingiber which usually has a spike on a large erect peduncle; (2) section Cryptanthium Horan, characterized by a radical inflorescence composed of a spike at ground level with, usually, a short procumbent peduncle; (3) section Pleuranthesis Benth. with inflorescence from the leaf base; (4) section Dymczewiczia with terminal inflorescences (Triboun and Keeratikiet, 2016). Molecular characterization study based on ITS rDNA, with 18 Zingiber species advises inconsistencies in the infrageneric classification based only on the type of inflorescence, in the case of sections Dymczewiczia and Zingiber; these sessions should be put together on the basis of equal pollen morphology (Theerakulpisut et al., 2012).

The description of the genus in 1754, did not define a taxon as a type species. The first species described within the genus was Z. spectabile Griff., in 1754, but Linneu, in 1753, had described Amomum zingiber L., basionym of Zingiber officinale Roscoe and Amomum zerumbet L., basionym of Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Roscoe ex Sm. Zingiber sylvestre Gaertn. was described, in 1788. Soon after, Z. mioga Roscoe, Z. purpureum Roscoe and Z. roseum Roscoe were described (Roscoe, 1807). Later, in the 19th century, and until 1918, several publications featuring regional floras included the description of new species of Zingiber. Therefore, 11 species were reported in India (Roxburgh, 1810, 1820), 24 species for British India, a geographic area that included territories of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Myanmar (Baker, 1894). Currently, only 16 are within the geographic boundaries of India. Dalzell and Esq (1852), also highlighted the naturally occurring gingers in India.

Zingiber was studied in Java (Blume, 1827; Valeton, 1904, 1918), in Ceylon, currently Sri Lanka (Thwaites, 1864; Graib, 1912) and in Malaysia (Ridley, 1899, 1904, 1908; Schumann, 1900, 1904). Gagnepain (1908) was the only one to provide a comprehensive review of Zingiberaceae in Indochina, which currently includes areas in Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, and parts of Thailand and Myanmar, listing 13 species in the Zingiber genus. The occurrence of species of the genus in China was reported by Diels (1900) and in Philippines by Ridley (1909) and Elmer (1915-1919). After 1918, and until 1990 there was not many studies on this genus, but the articles by Loesener (1930), Wallich (1830), Holttum (1950) and Smith (1988) studying Asian regional flora should be considered. Many new species have been described after 1990 focusing on the floras of Borneo-Malaysia (Burtt; and Smith, 1969; Smith, 1988; Poulsen, 2006; Sakai and Nagamasu, 2006; Lim and Meekiong, 2014), China (Wu and Larsen, 2000 ), India (Sabu, 2003), Indonesia (Ardiyani et al., 2017), Laos (Leong-Skornichová et al., 2014a), Sumatra (Nurainas and Arbain, 2017), Thailand (Theilade and Mood, 1997a, 1999b; Theilade, 1998, 1999; Triboun et al., 2014) and Vietnam (Pham, 2003; Leong-Skornicková et al., 2015). The record by Triboun et al. (2014) of the natural occurrence of 67 species in Thailand is an important evidence that Thailand is the center of biodiversity of the genus. China, with 42 species (36 endemic), presents the second most abundant diversity of the genus (Wu and Larsen, 2000).

Only two complete revisions of the genus have been made and that, more than one century ago, covering only 23 (Horaninow, 1862) and 55 species (Schumann, 1904). Other studies focus on regional floras, occurrence of new species and taxonomic revisions. The list of currently accepted names for the genus contains 205 species (POWO, 2023).

Our review accepted the names of the following species: Z. acuminatumValeton (Valeton, 1904), Z. aguingayaeDocot (Docot et al., 2019), Z. albumNurainas (Nurainas and Arbain, 2017), Z. albiflorum R.M. Smith (Smith, 1982), Z. anamalayanumSujanapal & Sassidh. (Sujanapal and Sasidharan, 2010), Z. angustifoliumLim & Meekiong (Lim and Meekiong, 2014), Z. apoense Elmer (Elmer, 1915-1919), Z. argenteum Mood & Theilade (Theilade and Mood, 1997a), Z. arunachalensis A. Joe, T. Jayakr., Hareesh & M. Sabu (Joe et al., 2017), Z. atroporphyreum Skornick. & Q.B. Nguyen (Leong-Skornicková et al., 2015), Z. atrorubens Gagnep. (Gagnepain, 1903), Z. aurantiacum (Holt.) Theilade (Theilade, 1998), Z. banhaoense Mood & Theilade (Mood and Theilade, 2001), Z. barbatum Wall. (Wallich, 1830), Z. belumense Lim & Meekiong (Lim and Meekiong, 2014), Z. bipinianum D.K. Roy, D. Verma, Talukdar & Dutta Choud. (Talukdar et al., 2015), Z. bisectum D. Fang (Fang and Qin, 1996), Z. brachystachysTriboun & K.Larsen (Triboun et al., 2014), Z. bradleyanumCraib (Craib, 1912), Z. brevifolium N.E.Br. (Brown, 1886), Z. bulusanense Elmer (Elmer, 1915-1919), Z. calcicola Y.H.Tan & H.B.Ding (Ding et al., 2021), Z. callianthum Triboun & K.Larsen (Triboun et al., 2014), Z. campanulatum T. Jayakr, A. Joe, Hareesh & M. Sabu (Joe et al., 2017), Z. capitatum Roxb. (Roxburgh, 1810), Z. cardiocheilum Skornick. & Q.B. Nguyen (Leong-Skornicková et al., 2015), Z. castaneum Skornick. & Q.B. Nguyen (Leong-Skornicková et al., 2015), Z. caudatumBiseshwori & Bipin (Biseshwori and Bipin, 2018), Z. cernuumDalzell (Dalzell and Esq, 1852), Z. chataranothaii Triboun & K. Larsen (Triboun et al., 2014), Z. chengii Y.H. Tseng, C.M. Wang & Y.C. Lin (Wang et al., 2020), Z. chlorobracteatum Mood & Theilade (Theilade and Mood, 1999b), Z. chrysanthum Roscoe (Roscoe, 1824), Z. chrysostachys Ridl. (Ridley, 1899), Z. citriodorum Theilande & Mood (Mood and Theilade, 2002), Z. clarkei King exBaker (Baker, 1894), Z. cochleariforme D. Fang (Fang, 1980), Z. collinsii Mood & Theilade (Theilade and Mood, 1999a), Z. coloratum N.E.Br. (Brown, 1879), Z. corallinumHance (Hance, 1880), Z. cornubracteatum Triboun & K.Larsen (Triboun et al., 2014), Z. curtisiiHolttum (Holttum, 1950), Z. cylindricumThwaites (Thwaites, 1864), Z. densissimum S.Q. Tong & Y.M. Xia (Tong and Xia, 1987), Z. discolor Skornick., Tran, Rybková (Leong-Skornicková et al., 2015), Z. eberhardtii Gagnep. (Gagnepain, 1907a), Z. eborinum Mood & Theilade (Theilade and Mood, 1997b), Z. elatius (Ridl.) Theilade (Theilade, 1998), Z. elatum Roxb. (Roxburgh and Wallick, 1820), Z. ellipticum (S.Q. Tong & Y.M. Yang) Q.G. Wu & T.L. Wu (Wu et al., 1996), Z. engganoensisArdiyani (Ardiyani, 2015), Z. fallax (Loes.) L. Bai, Juan Chen & N.H. Xia (Chen et al., 2019), Z. flagelliforme Mood & Theilade (Theilade and Mood, 1999b), Z. flammeum Theilade & Mood (Theilade and Mood, 1997b), Z. flaviflorum C.K. Lim & Meekiong (Lim and Meekiong, 2014), Z. flavofusiforme M.M. Aung & Nob. Tanaka (Tanaka and Aung, 2017), Z. flavomaculosum S.Q. Tong (Shao-Quan, 1987), Z. flavovirens Theilade (Theilade, 1999), Z. fragile S.Q. Tong (Tong and Xia, 1987), Z. fraseri Theilade (Theilade, 1998), Z. georgeai Mood & Theilade (Theilade and Mood, 1999b), Z. gracile Jack (Jack, 1820-1822), Z. gramineum Noronha exBlume (Blume, 1827), Z. griffithii Baker (Baker, 1894), Z. guangxiense D.Fang (Fang, 1980), Z. gulinense Y.M. Xia (Xia, 1996), Z. hainanense Y.S. Ye, L. Bai & N.H. Xia (Ye, et al., 2015), Z. idae Triboun & K. Larsen (Triboun et al., 2002), Z. incomptum B.L. Burth & R.M. Sm. (Burtt and Smith, 1969), Z. inflexum Blume (Blume, 1827), Z. integrilabrum Hance (Hance, 1882), Z. integrum S.Q. Tong (Tong and Xia, 1987), Z. intermedium Baker (Baker, 1894), Z. isanense Triboun & K.Larsen (Triboun et al., 2014), Z. jiewhoei Skornick. (Leong-Skornicková et al., 2014b), Z. junceum Gagnep. (Gagnepain, 1906), Z. kangleipakenseKishor & Skornick. (Kishor & Leong-Skornicková, 2013), Z. kawagoiiHayata (Hayata, 1921), Z. kelabitianum Theilade & H. Chu (Theilade and Christensen, 1998), Z. kerrii Craib. (Craib, 1912), Z. kunstleri King ex Ridl. (Ridley, 1899), Z. lambii Mood & Theilade (Theilade and Mood, 1997a), Z. laoticum Gagnep. (Gagnepain, 1907a), Z. larsenii Theilade (Theilade, 1999), Z. latifolium Theilade & Mood (Theilade and Mood, 1997a), Z. lecongkietii Skornick. & H.Ð. Trần (Leong-Skornicková et al., 2015), Z. leptorrhizum D. Fang (Fang, 1982), Z. leptostachyum Valeton (Valeton, 1908), Z. ligulatum Roxb. (Roxburgh, 1810), Z. limianum Meekiong (Lim and Meekiong, 2014), Z. lingyunense D. Fang (Fang, 1980), Z. loerzingii Valeton (Valeton, 1918), Z. longibracteatum Theilade (Theilade, 1999), Z. longiglande D. Fang & D.H. Qin. (Fang and Qin, 1996), Z. longiligulatum S.Q. Tong (Shao-Quan, 1987), Z. longipedunculatum Ridl. (Ridley, 1908), Z. longyanjiang Z.Y. Zhu (Zhu, 1992), Z. macradenium K. Schum. (Schumann, 1900), Z. macrocephalum (Zoll.) K. Schum. (Schumann, 1900), Z. macroglossum Val. (Valeton, 1918), Z. macrorrhynchus K. Schum. (Schumann, 1904), Z. magang N.S. Lý & Skornick. (Jayakrishnan et al., 2021), Z. malaysianum C.K. Lim (Lim, 2002), Z. marginatum Roxb. (Roxburgh, 1810), Z. martini R.M. Sm. (Smith, 1988), Z. matangense Noor Ain, Tawan & Meekiong (Ain et al., 2015), Z. matupiense M.M. Aung & Nob. Tanaka (Tanaka and Aung, 2017), Z. matutumense Mood & Theilade (Mood and Theilade, 2001), Z. mawangense Noor Ain & Meekiong (Ain et al., 2015), Z. meghalayense Sushil K. Singh, Ram, Kumar & Mood (Kumar et al., 2013), Z. mekongense Gagnep. (Gagnepain, 1907b), Z. mellis Skornick., H.Ð. Trần & Šída f. (Leong-Skornicková et al., 2015), Z. microcheilum Skornick., H.Ð. Trần & Šída f. (Leong-Skornicková et al., 2015), Z. mioga (Thumb.) Roscoe (Roscoe, 1807), Z. mizoramense Ram. Kumar, Sushil K. Singh & S. Sharma (Kumar et al., 2015), Z. molle Ridl. (Ridley, 1909), Z. monophyllum Gagnep. (Gagnepain, 1903), Z. montanum (J. Koenig) Link ex A. Dietr. (Wildenow, 1831), Z. multibracteatum Holltum (Holttum, 1950), Z. murlenica Ram. Kumar, Sushil K. Singh & S. Sharma (Kumar et al., 2015), Z. nanlingensis (Chen et al., 2011), Z. natmataungense S.S. Zhou & R. Li (Li et al., 2002), Z. nazrinii C.K. Lim & Meekiong (Lim and Meekiong, 2014), Z. neesamum (J. Graham) Ramamoorthy (Saldanha and Nicolson, 1976), Z. neglectum Valeton (Valeton, 1904), Z. negrosense Elmer (Elmer, 1915-1919), Z. neotruncatum T.T. Wu, K. Larsen & Turland (Wu et al., 2000), Z. nigrimaculatum S.Q. Tong (Tong, 1989), Z. nimmonii (J. Graham) Dalzell (Dalzell and Esq, 1852), Z. nitens M.F. Newman (Newman, 2015), Z. niveum Mood & Theilade (Mood and Theilade, 2002), Z. odoriferum Blume (Blume, 1827), Z. officinale Roscoe (Roscoe, 1807), Z. oligophyllum K. Schum. (Schumann, 1904), Z. olivaceum Mood & Theilade (Mood and Theilade, 2002), Z. orbiculatum S.Q. Tong (Tong and Xia, 1987), Z. ottensi Valeton (Valeton, 1918), Z. pachysiphon B.L. Burth & R.M. Smith (Burtt and Smith, 1969), Z. panduratum Roxb. (Roxburgh and Wallick, 1820), Z. papuanum Valeton (Valeton, 1918), Z. pardocheilum Wall. ex Baker (Baker, 1894), Z. parishii Hook.f. (Hooker et al., 1873), Z. pauciflorum L. Bai, Skornick., D.Z. Li & N.H. Xia (Bai et al., 2017), Z. pellitum Gagnep. (Gagnepain, 1906), Z. pendulum Mood & Theilade (Theilade and Mood, 1997a), Z. petiolatum (Holttum) Theilade (Theilade, 1998), Z. pherimaense Biseshwori & Bipin (Thongan and Konsan, 2014), Z. phillippsiae Mood & Theilade (Theilade and Mood, 1999b), Z. phumiangense Chavein & Makkamil (Chaveerach et al., 2007), Z. pleiostachyum K. Schum. (Schumann, 1904), Z. plicatum Skornick. & Q.B. Nguyen (Leong-Skornicková et al., 2015), Z. popaense Nob.Tanaka (Tanaka, 2012), Z. porphyrochilum Y.H. Tan & H.B. Ding (Ding et al., 2020), Z. porphyrosphaerum K. Schum. (Schumann, 1904), Z. pseudopungens R.M. Smith (Smith, 1988), Z. pseudosquarrosum L.J. Singh & P. Singh (Singh and Singh, 2016), Z. puberulum Ridl. (Ridley, 1899), Z. purpureoalbum Nob.Tanaka & M.M.Aung (Tanaka and Aung, 2020), Z. purpureum Roscoe (Larsen, 1996), Z. pyroglossum Triboun & K. Larsen (Triboun et al., 2014), Z. raja K. Lim & Kharuk (Lim, 2003), Z. recurvatum S.Q. Tong & Y.M. Xia (Tong and Xia, 1987), Z. reflexum Nob. Tanaka & M.M. Aung (Tanaka and Aung, 2020), Z. roseum (Roxb.) Roscoe (Roscoe, 1807), Z. rubens Roxb. (Roxburgh, 1810), Z. rufopilosum Gagnep. (Gagnepain, 1903), Z. sabuanum K.M.P. Kumar & A. Joe (Prabhumar et al., 2016), Z. sabun K. Lim (Lim and Meekiong, 2014), Z. sadakornii Triboun & K. Larsen (Triboun et al., 2014), Z. salarkaniiRahman & Yusuf (Rahman and Yusuf, 2013), Z. shuanglongense L. Yeh & S.W. Chung (Yeh et al., 2012), Z. sianginensis (Mibang and Das, 2016), Z. simaoense Y.Y. Quan (Quan, 1988), Z. singapurense Skornick. (Leong-Skornicková et al., 2014b), Z. skornickovae N.S. Lý (Lý, 2016), Z. smilesianum Craib (Craib, 1912), Z. spectabile Griff. (Griffth, 1851), Z. squarrosum Roxb. (Roxburgh, 1810), Z. stenostachys K. Schum. (Schumann, 1904), Z. striolatumDiels (Diels, 1900), Z. subroseum Docot (Docot et al., 2019), Z. sulphureum Berkill ex Theilade (Colley and Theilade, 1995), Z. sylvestre Gaertn. (Gaertner, 1788), Z. tamii N.S. Lý & Skornick. (Lý et al., 2021), Z. tenuifolium L. Bai, Skornick. & N.H. Xia (Bai et al., 2015), Z. tenuiscapus (Triboun et al., 2014), Z. thorelii Gagnep. (Gagnepain, 1907), Z. tuanjuum Z.Y. Zhu (Zhu, 1984), Z. ultralimitale Ardyani & Poulsen (Ardiyani et al., 2017), Z. vanlithianum Kd. (Koords, 1918), Z. velutinum Mood & Theilade (Theilade and Mood, 1999b), Z. ventricosum L. Bai, Skornick., N.H. Xia & Y.S. Ye (Bai et al., 2015), Z. vinosum Mood & Theilade (Theilade and Mood, 1997a), Z. viridiflavum Mood & Theilade (Theilade and Mood, 1999b), Z. vittacheilum Triboun & K. Larsen (Triboun et al., 2014), Z. vuquangense N.S. Lý, T.H. Lê, T.H. Trinh, V.H. Nguyen & N.D. Do (Le et al., 2019), Z. wandingense S.Q. Tong (Shao-Quan, 1987), Z. wightianum Thwailes (Thwaites, 1864), Z. wrayi Prain ex Riedl (Ridley, 1904), Z. yersinii Skornick., H.D. Trần & Rybková (Leong-Skornicková et al., 2015), Z. yingjiangense S.Q. Tong (Shao-Quan, 1987), Z. yunnanense S.Q. Tong & X.Z. Lui (Tong and Lim, 1991), Z. zerumbet Sm. (Smith, 1804-1806), Z. zhuxiense (Hu et al., 2015).

Table 1
Synonyms for Zingiber species

Species	Synonymy
Z. aurantiacum (Holttum) Theilade	Z. gracile var. aurantiacum Holttum, The Gardens´ Bulletin Singapore 13: 63. 1950.
Z. capitatum Roxb.	Dymczewiczia capitata (Roxb.) Horan., Prodr. Monogr. Scitam: 26. 1862.
Z. chrysanthum Roscoe	Z. flavescens Link ex A. Dietr., Sp. Pl. 1: 54. 1831.
Z. elatum Roxb.	Dymczeeiczia elata (Roxb.) Horan., Prodr. Monogr. Scitam 26. 1862. Z. capitatum var. elatum (Roxb.) Baker, Fl. Brit. India 6: 249. 1892.
Z. ellipticum (S.Q. Tong & Y.M. Xia) Q.G. Wu & T.L. Wu	Plagiostachys elliptica S.Q. Tong & Y.M. Xia, Acta Phytotax. Sin. 25: 460. 1987.
Z. fraseri Theilade	Z. besar C.K. Lim & Meekiong, Folia Malaysiana 15(1):16.2014. nom. illeg. Z. besar C.K. Lim & Meekiong var. fraseri (Theilade), Folia Malaysiana 16(1):18.2014. Z. besar C.K. Lim & Meekiong var. nervifolium C.K. Lim & Meekiong, Folia Malaysiana 16(1): 18. 2015.
Z. gramineum Noronha ex Blume	Dymczewiczia graminea (Noronha ex Blume) Horan., Prodr. Monogr. Scitam 26. 1862. Z. gramineum var. validior K. Schum, Pflanzer., IV, 46: 175. 1904.
Z. griffithi Baker	Z. citrinum Ridl. – J. Straits Branch Roy. Asiat. Soc. 32: 129. 1899. Z. griffithii var. citrinum (Ridl.) Holttum, The Gardens´ Bulletin Singapore 13: 63. 1950.
Z. idae Triboun & K. Larsen	Z. villosum Theilade, Nordic J. Bot. 19: 396.1999.
Z. kawagoi Hayata	Z. koshunense Hayata ex C.T. Moo, Fl. Taiwan 5: 850.1978. nom. inval.
Z. kerri Craib.	Z. menghaiense S.Q. Tong, Acta Phytotax. Sin. 25(2): 145. 1987. Z. stipitatum S.Q. Tong, Acta Phytotax. Sin. 25: 146. 1987.
Z. leptostachyum Valeton	Z. flavidum Riedl., J. Straits Branch Roy. Asiat. Soc. 54: 58. 1910.
Z. longibracteatum Theilade	Z. mythianum C.K. Lim, Folia Malaysiana 2: 37. 2001.
Z. longipedunculatum Ridl.	Z. longipedunculatum var. lambirense S. Sakai & Nagam., Blumea 51: 112.2006.
Z. macrocephalum (Zoll.) K. Schum.	Cardamomum macrocephalum (Zoll.) Kuntze, Rev. Gen. Pl. 2: 687. 1891. Donacodes macrocephala Zoll., Natuur-Geneesk. Arch. Ned. Indië 2: 211. 1854. Ellettaria macrocephala (Zoll.) Miq., Fl. Ned. Ind. 3: 603. 1859.
Z. mioga (Thunb.) Roscoe	Amomum mioga Thunb., Syst. Veg. 14: 51. 1784. Z. echuanense Y.K. Yang, Acta Phytotax. Sin. 26: 158. 1988. Z. mijooka Siebold, Verh. Batav. Genootsch. Kunsten 12: 18. 1830. Z. mioga var. variegatum Makino, J. Jap. Bot. 6: 10. 1929. Z. sjooka Siebold, Verh Batav. Genootsch. Kunsten 12: 18. 1830.
Z. molle Ridl.	Z. sylvaticum Elmer, Leafl. Phillipp. Bot. 8: 2919. 1915.
Z. montanum (J. Koenig) Link ex A.Dietr.	Amomum cassumar (Roxb.) Donn, Hortus Cantabrig 7: 1. 1812. Amomum montanum J. Koening, Observ. Bot. 3: 51. 1783. Amomum xanthorhiza Roxb. ex Steud., Nomencl. Bot. 2,1: 78. 1840. Cassumar roxburgh Colla, Nov. Scitam. Gen. 10. 1830. Jaegera montana (J. Koening) Giseke, Prael. Ord. Nat. Pl. 203. 1792. Z. anthorrhiza Horan., Prodr. Monogr. Scitam 27. 1862. Z. cassumar Roxb., Asiat. Res. 11: 347. 1810. Z. cassumar var. palamauense Haines, Bot. Bihar Orissa 1144. 1924. Z. cassumar var. subglabrum Thwaites, Enum. Pl. Zeyl. 315. 1861. Z. cliffordiae Andrews, Bot. Repos. 9: t.555. 1809. Z. luridum Salisb., Trans. Hort. Soc. London 1: 284. 1812. Z. purpureum Roscoe, Trans. Linn. Soc. London 8: 348. 1807. Z. purpureum var. palamauense (Haines) K.K. Khana, Fl. Bihar, Analysis 513. 2001. Z. xantorrhizon Steud., Nomencl. Bot. 2, 2: 799. 1841.
Z. multibracteatum Holttum	Z. multibracteatum var. multibracteatum
Z. neesanum (J. Graham) Ramamoorthy	Alpinia neesana J. Graham, Cat. Pl. Bombay 207. 1839. Z. macrostachyum Dalzell, Bot. Kew Gard. Misc. 4: 342. 1852.
Z. neotruncatum T.L. Wu, K. Larsen & Turland	Z. truncatum S.Q. Tong, Acta Phytotax. Sin. 25: 147. 1987.
Z. nimmonii (J. Graham) Dalzell	Alpinia nimmonii J. Graham, Cat. Pl. Bombay 206. 1839.
Z. montanum (J. Koenig) Link ex A. Dietr.	Z. newmanii Theilade & Mood. Nordic J. Bot. 19: 407 Z. nudicarpum D. Fang, Guihaia 2(3): 139–140, pl. 1, f. 4 Z. peninsulare Theilade, Nordic J. Bot. 19: 401
Z. odoriferum Blume	Z. aquosum Blume, Enum. Pl. Javae 43. 1790. nom. inval. Z. odoriferum var. odoriferum Z. pachystachys Valeton, Bull. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg, sér. E 27: 147. 1818. Z. tongtak K. Schum, Pflanzenr. IV, 46: 177. 1904.
Z. officinale Roscoe	Amomum angustifolium Salisb., Prodr. Stirp. Chap. Allerton: 4. 1796. Amomum zinziba Hill, Veg. Syst.16: 50. 1770, orth var. Amomum zingiber L., Sp Pl. 1: 1. 1753. Z. aromaticum Noronha, Verh. Batav. Genootsch. Kunsten 5(4): 28. 1790, nom. nud. Z. cholmondeleyi (F.M. Bailey) K. Schum., Pflanzenr. IV, 46: 172. 1904. Z. majus Rumph. (herb) Z. missionis Wall., Number. List {Wallich} n.6565. 1832. Z. officinale var. cholmondeley F.M. Bailey, Queensland Agric. J. 6: 498. 1900. Z. officinale var. macrorhizonum Makino, J. Jap. Bot. 8: 45. 1933. Z. officinale var. rubens Makino, J. Jap. Bot. 8: 45. 1933. Z. officinale var. rubrum Theilade, The Gardens´ Bulletin Singapore 48: 218. 1996 publ. 1998. Z. officinale var. sichuanense Z.Y. Zhu, S.L. Zhang & S.X. Chen, Fl. Sichuanica 10: 624. 1992. Z. officinale f. macrorhizonum (Makino) M. Hiroe, Pl. Basho´s & Buson´s Hokku Lit. 8: 258. 1971 Z. officinale f. rubens (Makino) M. Hiroe, Pl. Basho´s & Buson´s Hokku Lit. 8: 258. 1971 Z. sichuanense Z.Y. Zhu, S.L. Zhang & S.X.Chen, Bull. Sichuan School Chin. Met. Med. 19878 (1): 39. 1987. Z. zingiber (l.), Deut Fl. 471.1880, nom. inval.
Z. petiolatum (Holttum) Theilade	Z. gracile var. petiolatum Holttum, The Gardens´ Bulletin Singapore 13: 64. 1950.
Z. puberulum Ridl.	Z. chryseum Riedl., J. of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 50: 149. 1908. Z. puberulum var. puberulum
Z. roseum (Roxb.) Roscoe	Amomum roseum Roxb., Pl. Coromandel 2: t.126. 1800.
Z. smilesianum Craib	Z. teres S.Q. Tong & Y.M. Xia, Acta Phytotax. Sin. 25(6): 468-470, pl. 7. 1987.
Z. striolatum Diels	Z. didymoglossa K. Schum. = Z. didymoglossum K. Schum., Pflanzenr. IV, 46: 186. 1904. Z. emeiense Z.Y. Zhu, Acta Bot. Yunann 6(2): 185. 1984. Z. hupehense Pamp., Nuovo Giorn. Bot. Ital. 17: 244. 1910. Z. liangshanense Z.Y. Zhu, Bull. Sichuan School Chin. Met. Med. 9(3): 33. 1987
Z. thorelii Gaenep.	Z. xishuangbannaense S.Q. Tong, Acta Phytotax. Sin. 25: 461. 1987.
Z. wightianum Thwaites	Z. squarrosum Wight, Icon. Pl. Ind. Orient.: t. 2004. 1853, nom. illeg.
Z. wrayi Prain ex Ridl.	Z. wrayi var. halabala C.K. Lim, Folia Malaysiana 2(1): 50. 2001.
Z. zerumbet (L.) Roscoe ex Sm.	Amomum spurium (J. Koenig) J.F. Gmel, Syst. Nat. 13 [bis]: 6. 1791 Amomum sylvestre Lam, Encycl. 1: 134. 1783, nom. superfl. Amomum zerumbet L., Sp Pl., 1753. Cardamomum spurium (J. Koenig) Kuntze, Revis. Gen. Pl. 2: 687. 1891. Dieterichia lampujang Giseke, Prael Ord. Nat. Pl. 199. 1792. Dieterichia lampuyang Giseke, Prael Ord. Nat. Pl. 208. 1792. Dieterichia major Raeusch., Nomencl. Bot. 3: 1797. Dieterichia minor Raeusch., Nomencl. Bot. 3: 1797. Dieterichia spuria Giseke, Prael Ord. Nat. Pl.: 199. 1792. Zerumbet zingiber T. Lestib, Ann. Sci. Nat. Bot., sér. 2, 15: 329. 1841. Z. amaricans Blume, Enum. Pl. Javae 43. 1790. Z. aromaticum Valeton, Bull. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg II, 27: 131. 1918. Z. blancoi Hassk., Flora 47:20. 1864. Z. cochinchinense Gaenep., Bull. Soc. Bot. France 54: 167. 1907. Z. darceyi H.J. Veitch, Cat. 1890: 13. 1890. Z. littorale (Valeton), Bull. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg II 27: 135. 1918. Z. ovoideum Blume, Enum. Pl. Javae: 43. 1827. Z. spurium J. Koenig, Observ. Bot. 3: 60. 1783. Z. sylvestre Garsault, Fig. Pl. Méd.t. 34b. 1764, opus utique oppr. Z. truncatum Stokes, Bot. Mat. Med. 1: 68. 1812. Z. zerumbet subsp. cochinchinense (Gagnep.) Triboun & K. Larsen, Acta Phytotax. Sin. 45: 404. 2007. Z. zerumbet var. littoralis Valeton, Icon. Bogor. 3: t. 250. 1907. Z. zerumbet var. magnum Elmer, Leafl. Philipp. Bot. 8: 2922. 1919. Z. zerumbet var. valenzuelae Oliveros & Cantoria, Phillipp. J. Sci., 111: 105. 1982, nom. inval.

The type material of the species in the Zingiberaceae family is usually poor or absent, making it difficult to preserve important floral characters in herbarium specimens through traditional drying methods, as well as the variability of certain morphological characters, together with hybridization and polyploidy in some genera, make Zingiberaceae one of the most taxonomically challenging plant groups (Bai et al., 2015; confirming Larsen (1980) and Theilade (1999). In addition, the deficiency in the study of the genus, as well as the larger genera of the family Zingiberaceae, is further exacerbated by the fact that many researchers have limited their area of study to a single country, rather than working monographically, leading to repeated descriptions of the same taxa. Several taxonomists have recommended that the ideal method for the taxonomic study of Zingiber should be to work with living, fertile or well-preserved material inliquid medium. The solution, for Burtt & Smith (1979) involves revisiting and collecting plants from the type localities in order to take accurate notes with good photographic documentation, and to preserve at least the fertile bracts, bracts and flowers (or, better still, the entire inflorescence) in liquid medium, including several flowers preserved separately to avoid damage. Additionally, Bai et al. (2015) suggest that reviewing the pertinent literature on species across their phytogeographical range and good communication between taxonomists working with gingers is also crucial. Thus, during a serie of species initiallt belonging to the family were reconsidered and excluded from the genus (Tables 2 and 3).

Table 2
Described Zingiber species transferred to other genera.

Species	Original Description	Genus and Citation
Z. alliaceum (Teijsm. & Binn) K. Schum.	Pflanzer. IV 46: 179. 1904	Hornstedia conica Riedl., J. Straits Branch Roy Asiat. Soc. 32: 142. 1899.
Z. borneense K. Schum.	Pflanzer. IV 46: 178. 1904.	Amomum borneense (K. Schum.) R.M. Sm., Notes Roy. Bot. Gard. Edinburgh 45: 337. 1988 publ. 1989.
Z. compactum (Sol. ex Maton) Stokes	Bot. Mat. Med. 1: 68. 1812.	Amomum compactum Sol. ex Maton, Trans. Linn. Soc. London 10: 251. 1811.
Z. corynostachyum (Wall.) Steud.	Nomencl. Bot. ed 2, 2: 798.1841.	Amomum corynostachyum (Wall.) Steud., Nomencl. Bot. 2, 2: 798. 1841.
Z. dubium	Rem. Guin. 2: 9. 1813.	Costus dubius (Afzel.) K. Schum, Pflanzer. IV, 46: 409. 1904.
Z. ensai Gaertn.	Fruct. Sem. Pl. i. 35. 1788	Elettaria ensai (Gaertn.) Abeyw., Ceylon J. Sci., Biol. Sci. 2: 83. 1959.
Z. galanga (L.) Stokes	Bot. Mat. Med. 1: 72. 1812.	Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd., Sp. Pl. 1: 12. 1797.
Z. gigantifolium Elmer	Leafl. Philipp. Bot. 8: 2916. 1915.	Alpinia gigantifolia (Elmer) R.M.Sm. Edinburgh J. Bot. 47: 65. 1990.
Z. globosum Stokes	Bot. Mat. Med. 1: 72. 1812.	Alpinia globosa Horan, Prod. Scitam. 34. 1862.
Z. insipidum Noronha	Verh. Batav. Genootsch. Kunsten 5(4): 28. 1790, nom. inval.	Hornstedia paludosa (Blume) K. Schum., Pflanzer. IV, 46: 200. 1904 .
Z. medium Stokes	Bot. Mat. Med. 1: 72. 1812.	Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd., Sp. Pl. 1: 12. 1797.
Z. melegueta Gaertn.	Fruct. Sem. Pl. 1: 34. 1788.	Afromomum angustifolium (Sonn.) K. Schum., Pflanzer. IV 46: 218. 1904.
Z. minus Gaertn.	Verh. Batav. Genootsch. Kunsten 12: 1830.	Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton, Trans. Linn. Soc. London 10: 254. 1811.
Z. nigrum Gaertn.	Fruct. Sem. Pl. 1: 35. 1788.	Alpinia nigra (Gaertn.) Burtt, Notes Roy. Bot. Gard. Edinburgh 35: 213. 1977.
Z. ramosum Noronha	Verh. Batav. Genootsch. Kunsten 5(4): 28. 1790, nom. inval.	Hornstedtia pininga (Blume) Valetonvar. pininga, Bull. Inst. Bot. Buitenzorg 20: 93. 1904
Z. sylvestre Gaertn.	Fruct. Sem. Pl. 1: 34. 1788.	Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd., Sp. Pl. 1: 12. 1797.
Z. sylvestre Stokes	Bot. Mat. Med. 1: 67. 1812, nom. illeg.	Renealmia striata (Stokes) Govaerts ex Maas, Edinburgh J. Bot. 70: 450. 2013.
Z. uncinatum Stokes	Bot. Mat. Med. 1: 73. 1812, nom. illeg.	Renealmia jamaicensis (Gaertn.) Horan., Prodr. Monogr. Scitam. 32. 1862.
Z. villosum (Lour.) Stokes	Bot. Mat. Med. 1: 63. 1812.	Amomum villosum Lour., Fl. Cochinch.: 4. 1790, nom. cons.

Table 3
Species excluded from Zingiber genus.

Species	Reference
Z. brevifolium K. Schum. nom. illeg.	Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 27: 228.1899.
Z. confine Miq. unplaced name	J. Bot. Neerl. 1: 94.1861.
Z. jucundum F. Muell. unplaced name	Fragmenta Phytographiae Australiae. 4: 165.1864.
Z. railletii T. Durand unplaced name	Bull. Mens. Soc. Linn. Paris 1: 401.1883.

Conclusions

The complete list of species of the genus Zingiber presented here reflects the current status of the taxonomy of the genus, but it is to be considered that future changes are very likely due to the series of existing difficulties as described in our study.

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• ^†
  In Memorian

• Editors: Márkilla Zunete Beckmann-Cavalcante and Patrícia Duarte de Oliveira Paiva

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  31 July 2023
• Date of issue
  Apr-Jun 2023

History

• Received
  30 May 2023
• Accepted
  12 June 2023
• Published
  29 June 2023