Figure 1
Scheme showing energy diagrams of LUMO and HOMO of the electrolyte, and the electrochemical potential of each of the electrodes in a battery.
Figure 2
Schemes of metal-ion batteries discharge (a) and charge (b) processes.
Figure 3
Schematic diagram of a Li-metal battery with a Li-intercalation material as positive electrode and a separator soaked with electrolyte, showing the formation of Li dendrites on the negative electrode.
Figure 4
Experimental specific intercalation capacity of positive materials. LiCoO2 (Cho et al. 2003CHO J, KIM YW, KIM B, LEE JG & PARK B. 2003. A Breakthrough in the Safety of Lithium Secondary Batteries by Coating the Cathode Material with AlPO4 Nanoparticles. Angew Chemie Int Ed 42: 1618-1621.); LiNiO2 (Rougier et al. 1996ROUGIER A, GRAVEREAU P & DELMAS C. 1996. Optimization of the Composition of the Li1−zNi1+zO2 Electrode Materials: Structural Magnetic and Electrochemical Studies. J Electrochem Soc 143: 1168.); LiMnO2 (Bruce et al. 1999BRUCE PG, ARMSTRONG AR & GITZENDANNER RL. 1999. New intercalation compounds for lithium batteries: layered LiMnO2. J Mater Chem 9: 193-198.); LiNixMnyCozO2 (Bak et al. 2014BAK SM ET AL. 2014. Structural Changes and Thermal Stability of Charged LiNi x Mn y Co z O 2 Cathode Materials Studied by Combined In Situ Time-Resolved XRD and Mass Spectroscopy. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 6: 22594-22601.); LiNi0.8Co0.15Al0.05O2 (Martha et al. 2011MARTHA SK, HAIK O, ZINIGRAD E, EXNAR I, DREZEN T, MINERS JH & AURBACH D. 2011. On the Thermal Stability of Olivine Cathode Materials for Lithium-Ion Batteries. J Electrochem Soc 158: A1115-A1122.); LiMn2O4 (Thackeray et al. 1984THACKERAY MM, JOHNSON PJ, DE PICCIOTTO LA, BRUCE PG & GOODENOUGH JB. 1984. Electrochemical extraction of lithium from LiMn2O4. Mater Res Bull 19: 179-187.); LiCo2O4 (Choi & Manthiram 2002CHOI S & MANTHIRAM A. 2002. Synthesis and Electrochemical Properties of LiCo2O4 Spinel Cathodes. J Electrochem Soc 149: A162.); LiFePO4, LiMnPO4 and LiCoPO4 (Nitta et al. 2015NITTA N, WU F, LEE JT & YUSHIN G. 2015. Li-ion battery materials: present and future. Mater Today 18: 252-264.); LiVPO4F, LiVOPO4 and LIFeSO4F (Li et al. 2017LI T, QIN A, YANG L, CHEN J, WANG Q, ZHANG D & YANG H. 2017a. In Situ Grown Fe 2 O 3 Single Crystallites on Reduced Graphene Oxide Nanosheets as High Performance Conversion Anode for Sodium-Ion Batteries. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 9: 19900-19907.b).
Figure 5
(a) Conversion type 1 with formation of two phases and (b) conversion type 2 with transformation of a single-to-single phase.
Figure 6
Theoretical specific capacity of conversion positive materials. CoF3, CuF2, NiF2, FeF3, FeF2, and VF3 (Wu & Yushin 2017WU F & YUSHIN G. 2017. Conversion cathodes for rechargeable lithium and lithium-ion batteries. Energy Environ Sci 10: 435-459.); Se and Li2Se (Liu et al. 2016LIU C, NEALE ZG & CAO G. 2016a. Understanding electrochemical potentials of cathode materials in rechargeable batteries. Mater Today 19: 109-123.b, Song et al. 2019aSONG JP ET AL. 2019a. MOF-derived nitrogen-doped core-shell hierarchical porous carbon confining selenium for advanced lithium-selenium batteries. Nanoscale 11: 6970-6981.); Te and Li2Te (Koketsu et al. 2016KOKETSU T, PAUL B, WU C, KRAEHNERT R, HUANG Y & STRASSER P. 2016. A lithium-tellurium rechargeable battery with exceptional cycling stability. J Appl Electrochem 46: 627-633.); S and Li2S (Meini et al. 2014MEINI S, ELAZARI R, ROSENMAN A, GARSUCH A & AURBACH D. 2014. The Use of Redox Mediators for Enhancing Utilization of Li 2 S Cathodes for Advanced Li-S Battery Systems. J Phys Chem Lett 5: 915-918., Wild et al. 2015WILD M, O’NEILL L, ZHANG T, PURKAYASTHA R, MINTON G, MARINESCU M & OFFER GJ. 2015. Lithium sulfur batteries a mechanistic review. Energy Environ Sci 8: 3477-3494., Zhou et al. 2014ZHOU J, LI R, FAN X, CHEN Y, HAN R, LI W, ZHENG J, WANG B & LI X. 2014. Rational design of a metal-organic framework host for sulfur storage in fast long-cycle Li-S batteries. Energy Environ Sci 7: 2715.).
Figure 7
Discharge (green line) and charge (red line) of a Li-O2 battery with a carbon positive electrode and dimethyl ether with 0.25 mol L-1 of LiTf2N and 0.2 mol L-1 of LiI as electrolyte. Adapted from (Burke et al. 2016BURKE CM, BLACK R, KOCHETKOV IR, GIORDANI V, ADDISON D, NAZAR LF & MCCLOSKEY BD. 2016. Implications of 4 e - Oxygen Reduction via Iodide Redox Mediation in Li-O2 Batteries. ACS Energy Lett 1: 747-756.), with permission from the American Chemical Society.
Figure 3
Schematic diagram of a Li-metal battery with a Li-intercalation material as positive electrode and a separator soaked with electrolyte, showing the formation of Li dendrites on the negative electrode.
Figure 4
Experimental specific intercalation capacity of positive materials. LiCoO2 (Cho et al. 2003CHO J, KIM YW, KIM B, LEE JG & PARK B. 2003. A Breakthrough in the Safety of Lithium Secondary Batteries by Coating the Cathode Material with AlPO4 Nanoparticles. Angew Chemie Int Ed 42: 1618-1621.); LiNiO2 (Rougier et al. 1996ROUGIER A, GRAVEREAU P & DELMAS C. 1996. Optimization of the Composition of the Li1−zNi1+zO2 Electrode Materials: Structural Magnetic and Electrochemical Studies. J Electrochem Soc 143: 1168.); LiMnO2 (Bruce et al. 1999BRUCE PG, ARMSTRONG AR & GITZENDANNER RL. 1999. New intercalation compounds for lithium batteries: layered LiMnO2. J Mater Chem 9: 193-198.); LiNixMnyCozO2 (Bak et al. 2014BAK SM ET AL. 2014. Structural Changes and Thermal Stability of Charged LiNi x Mn y Co z O 2 Cathode Materials Studied by Combined In Situ Time-Resolved XRD and Mass Spectroscopy. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 6: 22594-22601.); LiNi0.8Co0.15Al0.05O2 (Martha et al. 2011MARTHA SK, HAIK O, ZINIGRAD E, EXNAR I, DREZEN T, MINERS JH & AURBACH D. 2011. On the Thermal Stability of Olivine Cathode Materials for Lithium-Ion Batteries. J Electrochem Soc 158: A1115-A1122.); LiMn2O4 (Thackeray et al. 1984THACKERAY MM, JOHNSON PJ, DE PICCIOTTO LA, BRUCE PG & GOODENOUGH JB. 1984. Electrochemical extraction of lithium from LiMn2O4. Mater Res Bull 19: 179-187.); LiCo2O4 (Choi & Manthiram 2002CHOI S & MANTHIRAM A. 2002. Synthesis and Electrochemical Properties of LiCo2O4 Spinel Cathodes. J Electrochem Soc 149: A162.); LiFePO4, LiMnPO4 and LiCoPO4 (Nitta et al. 2015NITTA N, WU F, LEE JT & YUSHIN G. 2015. Li-ion battery materials: present and future. Mater Today 18: 252-264.); LiVPO4F, LiVOPO4 and LIFeSO4F (Li et al. 2017LI T, QIN A, YANG L, CHEN J, WANG Q, ZHANG D & YANG H. 2017a. In Situ Grown Fe 2 O 3 Single Crystallites on Reduced Graphene Oxide Nanosheets as High Performance Conversion Anode for Sodium-Ion Batteries. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 9: 19900-19907.b).
Figure 5
(a) Conversion type 1 with formation of two phases and (b) conversion type 2 with transformation of a single-to-single phase.
Figure 6
Theoretical specific capacity of conversion positive materials. CoF3, CuF2, NiF2, FeF3, FeF2, and VF3 (Wu & Yushin 2017WU F & YUSHIN G. 2017. Conversion cathodes for rechargeable lithium and lithium-ion batteries. Energy Environ Sci 10: 435-459.); Se and Li2Se (Liu et al. 2016LIU C, NEALE ZG & CAO G. 2016a. Understanding electrochemical potentials of cathode materials in rechargeable batteries. Mater Today 19: 109-123.b, Song et al. 2019aSONG JP ET AL. 2019a. MOF-derived nitrogen-doped core-shell hierarchical porous carbon confining selenium for advanced lithium-selenium batteries. Nanoscale 11: 6970-6981.); Te and Li2Te (Koketsu et al. 2016KOKETSU T, PAUL B, WU C, KRAEHNERT R, HUANG Y & STRASSER P. 2016. A lithium-tellurium rechargeable battery with exceptional cycling stability. J Appl Electrochem 46: 627-633.); S and Li2S (Meini et al. 2014MEINI S, ELAZARI R, ROSENMAN A, GARSUCH A & AURBACH D. 2014. The Use of Redox Mediators for Enhancing Utilization of Li 2 S Cathodes for Advanced Li-S Battery Systems. J Phys Chem Lett 5: 915-918., Wild et al. 2015WILD M, O’NEILL L, ZHANG T, PURKAYASTHA R, MINTON G, MARINESCU M & OFFER GJ. 2015. Lithium sulfur batteries a mechanistic review. Energy Environ Sci 8: 3477-3494., Zhou et al. 2014ZHOU J, LI R, FAN X, CHEN Y, HAN R, LI W, ZHENG J, WANG B & LI X. 2014. Rational design of a metal-organic framework host for sulfur storage in fast long-cycle Li-S batteries. Energy Environ Sci 7: 2715.).
Figure 7
Discharge (green line) and charge (red line) of a Li-O2 battery with a carbon positive electrode and dimethyl ether with 0.25 mol L-1 of LiTf2N and 0.2 mol L-1 of LiI as electrolyte. Adapted from (Burke et al. 2016BURKE CM, BLACK R, KOCHETKOV IR, GIORDANI V, ADDISON D, NAZAR LF & MCCLOSKEY BD. 2016. Implications of 4 e - Oxygen Reduction via Iodide Redox Mediation in Li-O2 Batteries. ACS Energy Lett 1: 747-756.), with permission from the American Chemical Society.
Figure 5
(a) Conversion type 1 with formation of two phases and (b) conversion type 2 with transformation of a single-to-single phase.
Figure 6
Theoretical specific capacity of conversion positive materials. CoF3, CuF2, NiF2, FeF3, FeF2, and VF3 (Wu & Yushin 2017WU F & YUSHIN G. 2017. Conversion cathodes for rechargeable lithium and lithium-ion batteries. Energy Environ Sci 10: 435-459.); Se and Li2Se (Liu et al. 2016LIU C, NEALE ZG & CAO G. 2016a. Understanding electrochemical potentials of cathode materials in rechargeable batteries. Mater Today 19: 109-123.b, Song et al. 2019aSONG JP ET AL. 2019a. MOF-derived nitrogen-doped core-shell hierarchical porous carbon confining selenium for advanced lithium-selenium batteries. Nanoscale 11: 6970-6981.); Te and Li2Te (Koketsu et al. 2016KOKETSU T, PAUL B, WU C, KRAEHNERT R, HUANG Y & STRASSER P. 2016. A lithium-tellurium rechargeable battery with exceptional cycling stability. J Appl Electrochem 46: 627-633.); S and Li2S (Meini et al. 2014MEINI S, ELAZARI R, ROSENMAN A, GARSUCH A & AURBACH D. 2014. The Use of Redox Mediators for Enhancing Utilization of Li 2 S Cathodes for Advanced Li-S Battery Systems. J Phys Chem Lett 5: 915-918., Wild et al. 2015WILD M, O’NEILL L, ZHANG T, PURKAYASTHA R, MINTON G, MARINESCU M & OFFER GJ. 2015. Lithium sulfur batteries a mechanistic review. Energy Environ Sci 8: 3477-3494., Zhou et al. 2014ZHOU J, LI R, FAN X, CHEN Y, HAN R, LI W, ZHENG J, WANG B & LI X. 2014. Rational design of a metal-organic framework host for sulfur storage in fast long-cycle Li-S batteries. Energy Environ Sci 7: 2715.).
Figure 7
Discharge (green line) and charge (red line) of a Li-O2 battery with a carbon positive electrode and dimethyl ether with 0.25 mol L-1 of LiTf2N and 0.2 mol L-1 of LiI as electrolyte. Adapted from (Burke et al. 2016BURKE CM, BLACK R, KOCHETKOV IR, GIORDANI V, ADDISON D, NAZAR LF & MCCLOSKEY BD. 2016. Implications of 4 e - Oxygen Reduction via Iodide Redox Mediation in Li-O2 Batteries. ACS Energy Lett 1: 747-756.), with permission from the American Chemical Society.
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