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ECOSYSTEMS • An. Acad. Bras. Ciênc. 98 (3) • 2026 • https://doi.org/10.1590/0001-3765202620250611 linkcopy

Open-access Plants, algae and lichens communities of Hope Bay, Antarctic Peninsula: floristic inventory and seabirds’ influence

AuthorshipSCIMAGO INSTITUTIONS RANKINGS

Abstract

The study aimed to describe and map the different plant communities that occur in Hope Bay (HB), Antarctic Peninsula. Floristic description was based on mosses, lichens and terrestrial algae species, forming a mosaic of cryptogamic plant communities. A vegetation map was developed based on images taken by the QuickBird sensor. Field campaigns were performed visiting 15 points previously selected in the image. All communities were georeferenced, and floristic work was done. The green alga Prasiola crispa forms the most widespread plant community in HB, closely associated with ornithogenic soils. All other plant communities are more restricted. A mixed Prasiola crispa/Caloplaca spp./Acarospora macrocyclos (lichens) community is distributed around abandoned Pygoscelis adeliae nesting areas. The high availability of P and N, and the tolerance to acid pH benefit the distribution of these species closer to penguin rookeries, from where it gets rich leachates. The dynamics of seabird populations seem to be the main driver of plant communities’ development in ice-free areas of HB. Deschampsia antarctica (the Antarctic grass) and Colobanthus quitensis (pearlwort), widely distributed in Maritime Antarctica, are absent in the Hope Bay, representing a semiarid transitional area between humid and polar desert climatic regions.

Key words
Lichens; Communities; Penguin rookery; Ornithocoprophilous

INTRODUCTION

Antarctic plant communities are often considered species-poor, and floristically and structurally simple, with typical lichen and moss populations depending on substrates and climate (Longton 1967, Olech 1993, Cañadas 2003). The patterns and growth of these communities are largely affected by biological, edaphic, and climatic factors (Hooker 1980, Robinson et al. 2018, Schmitz et al. 2020, Ferrari et al. 2021). Consequently, the spatial distribution of plant communities in Antarctica is primarily determined by the availability of ice-free areas, where soil is exposed during the warmest months of the year (Olech 1993, Lewis-Smith 1995, Seppelt et al. 1995, Otero et al. 2013).

Prasiola crispa (a terrestrial macroscopic algae) has a widespread, though sparse distribution, forming green matts directly on the ground associated with bird nesting or resting areas (Carvalho et al. 2017). Lichens and mosses are the main taxa on Antarctic terrestrial ecosystems, and form varying communities that contribute to the overall biodiversity of Antarctica, having different traits and ecological interactions, especially related to their affinity or intolerance to bird guano (Lindsay 1978, Longton 1979, Ochyra et al. 2008, Schmitz et al. 2021).

Hope Bay is part of Antarctic Peninsula region, geographically closer to the Maritime Antarctic, but experiences a much drier and colder semi-arid climate. This transitional location is crucial because it determines semiarid conditions that affect vegetation development. Continental Antarctica is characterized by harsher conditions, including even lower temperatures and precipitation, significantly limiting plant growth (Schaefer et al. 2015).

Several studies focused on Antarctic flora and the analysis of species richness, mainly in the Maritime Antarctic region since the beginning of scientific research in Antarctica (Kanda & Inoue 1994, Pereira & Putzke 2013, Convey & Peck 2019). On the other hand, many ice-free areas have not been significantly investigated, particularly on their floristic diversity in the Continental Antarctica. Although preliminary studies have examined the vegetation in Hope Bay, no research has specifically focused on floristic richness and ecological parameters associated with vegetation (Izaguirre et al. 1993, Pizarro et al. 1996, Tatur 2002, Martin-Serrano et al. 2005). The Hope Bay region has experienced rapid changes in its ice cover and air temperature in recent decades and its influence on vegetation can be evaluated (Sotille et al. 2016).

Hope Bay contains sites of paleobotanical significance, as well as areas of environmental and ecological importance in this transitional zone. These sites provide habitats for breeding birds and allow the establishment of lichen and moss communities (Tatur 2002, Pereira et al. 2013). The region’s vulnerability stems from its exposure to anthropogenic impacts, including climate change, which has contributed to a documented increase of approximately 1% in mean summer temperatures since 1961 (Turner et al. 2005, Anisimov et al. 2007, Cannone et al. 2022). The potential effects of climate change in this area emphasize the need for further ecological and environmental research (Hrbáček et al. 2020).

The present study aimed to describe and map the main plants/algae/lichens communities in Hope Bay, Antarctic Peninsula, given the importance of studying these groups in poorly investigated areas at the transitional zone.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study Area

Hope Bay is located at the Northern tip of the Antarctic Peninsula (Fig. 1). The site holds approximately 4 km2 of ice-free area, which a lithological composition: Mesozoic sedimentary rocks (Triassic age), sandstones, slates, and conglomerates belonging to the group composed of Trinity Peninsula, Botany Bay, and Antarctic Peninsula (Martin-Serrano et al. 2005, Seppelt et al. 2010).

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Figure 1
Hope Bay, Antarctic Peninsula. Adapted from SCAR - Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (2002). Source: Pereira et al. (2013).

Although Hope Bay is geographically close to the border of the Maritime Antarctic, it is classified as part of continental Antarctica. This classification is important because it determines the climatic conditions influencing vegetation development. The region has an EF (polar) climate according to the Köppen classification. Between 1952 and 2010, the average temperature at the nearby Esperanza Station was -5.1°C, with an annual precipitation of approximately 250 mm, characterizing a semi-desert climate (Pereira et al. 2013). Its southeastern portion is covered by extensive glaciers that supply the surrounding ponds and includes an important paleobotanical site that dates back to the Lower Jurassic, Mount Flora (Martin-Serrano et al. 2005, Birkenmajer & Ociepa 2008).

Image Processing

The vegetation map presented here was based on images taken in January 2005 by the QuickBird sensor, which comprises four spectral bands (1, 2, 3, and 4). The image had a spatial resolution of 2.44 m in bands 1, 2, and 3, and 0.61 m in the panchromatic band 4. It was interpreted and classified after geoprocessing processes before the fusion of bands was set, taking into account different spectral values. Thirteen terrestrial vegetation classes, three of which comprised lake, glacier, and sea algae features, were selected through visual classification.

Geoprocessing techniques using ArcGIS 10.8 software were implemented, and the vegetation map was detailed. Vegetation location was determined based on satellite images. The CobCal program (performs pixel classification) was used to quantify vegetal coverage. Subsequently, field visits to 15 points were carried out during land excursions – these points were previously selected in the image. However, as only these 15 points were sampled, this does not constitute a comprehensive vegetation survey of the area, and the focus was on the dominant genera/species in each sampled area.

Field Sampling

All communities were georeferenced, and botanical survey data collection was conducted following the method adapted from Braun-Blanquet (1979) in a fieldwork done in February 2009. The field campaign was accomplished by 6 scientists during 30 days and squares of 20 x 20 cm were used and 30 randomly placed plots were applied to each site.

Species Identification

Botanical material was identified using specific keys available for species living in Antarctica. Mosses identification followed, Ochyra et al. (2008) and Putzke & Pereira (2001), lichen identification followed Redon (1985), Øvstedal & Lewis-Smith (2001), and Spielmann & Pereira (2012). Classification and description of communities were based on Longton (1967, 1979) and Lewis-Smith & Gimingham (1976), with adaptations.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Based on the visual analysis, the assessed communities were distributed into small patches that, altogether, form many mosaics that, in turn, cover almost the entire area. This area is interspersed with free-vegetation areas (Fig. 2). Only the regions between Kennedy and Flora Glaciers lack cryptogamic representatives. Communities close to the sea are more fragmented, whereas the ones near glaciers are more continuous. Plants growing in Hope Bay belong to the “Antarctic cryptogamic” formation, according to the classification by Longton (1967), i.e., communities are characterized by the prevalence of plants without flowers and with poorly visible reproductive organs. Two sub-formation types, namely: “Sub-formation Lichens and Mosses” and “Sub-formation Thallose Algae” were observed in Hope Bay, based on the same classification.

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Figure 2
Vegetation map of Hope Bay, Antarctic Peninsula.

One hundred and forty-six samples were collected in 15 plots (Table I), and they allowed the identification of 26 species, comprising one terrestrial alga (A), 17 lichens (L) and eight mosses (M). An attempt was made to record the dominant lichen and moss species in each site, and not a detailed survey of the total diversity.

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Table I
Species sampled at Hope Bay, Antarctic Peninsula.

Buellia russa (L) was the most widely distributed species among the assessed communities. It was found in 11 collection points, from ornithogenic areas, to the most isolated points such as in Southern Hope Bay. Caloplaca sublobulata (L) stood out for its scope since it was collected in 10 sampling points. Most of the collected species were found in a few places, such as Mastodia tesselata (L), Rhizoplaca aspidophora (L), and Usnea antarctica (L). Seven species were identified in only one location, namely: Cladonia pocillum (L - P7), Pseudophebe minuscula (L - P7), Lecania brialmontii (L – P15), Umbilicaria antarctica (L – P5), Andreaea regularis (M – P15), Bryum argenteum (M – P14), and Hennediella antarctica (M – P10).

There were identified 13 distinct plant communities in Hope Bay: thallose alga subformation (Prasiola crispa – P1, P2, P3), underwater alga subformation (sea algae, all the coast), crustose lichens subformation (Caloplaca + Buellia – P11), lichens and moss cushion subformation, crustose lichens subformation (Acarospora + Rhizoplaca – P6), lichens and moss cushion subformation (Caloplaca lichen – P10), crustose lichens subformation (Caloplaca + Acarospora – P4), crustose lichens subformation (Acarospora – P14), lichens and moss cushion subformation (Caloplaca + Andreaea – P15), lichens and moss carpet subformation (Rhizoplaca + Sanionia – P12), lichens and moss carpet subformation (Rhizoplaca + Caloplaca – P13), lichens and moss cushion subformation (Umbilicaria – P9) and fruticose lichens subformation (Usnea - P7) (Fig. 2).

Tidal sea algae were highlighted in green covering the coastal rocks and representing 1,37% of the area. The other communities are formed by lichen, or by lichen and moss commmunities. The ice-free area boundaries in Hope Bay were highlighted in white (Fig. 2). A total of 12% of the ice-free areas are covered by these different plant formations.

Areas close to the Argentina military base in Northern Hope Bay, and in its Southern/Eastern part, are characterized by the “Thallose Algae” formation, which is a representative of Prasiola crispa (A) coverage. In some cases, Mastodia tesselata (L) individuals (that is, the lichenized Prasiola crispa with the fungus Mastodia tesselata) were identified within these patches (Fig. 4). This formation covers approximately 663 m2 (0,53%) and is absent only in the Southern part of the area, away from the penguin rookery.

Ornithocoprophilic lichen populations belonging to Acarospora macrocyclos, Buellia russa, Candelaria murrayi, Caloplaca sublobulata, and Mastodia tesselata were observed at Southwestern Boeckella Lake (Fig. 2, P4), near the front moraines of Buenos Aires Glacier. Some of these species were also distributed in the upper front moraines of the Glacier (Fig. 2, P5); they occupied an abandoned 272 m2 penguin rookery. In addition to species collected in P4 and P5, samples belonging to Xanthoria elegans, Rhizoplaca aspidophora, Physcia dubia, Usnea antarctica, and Umbilicaria antarctica were also collected. The largest portion of P5 was covered by Acarospora macrocyclos (L), and the bryophytes Sanionia uncinata and Syntrichia magellanica were found in small, widely spaced tufts in this section (Fig. 3).

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Figure 3
a) area with Prasiola crispa; b) Prasiola crispa; c) top of moraine at Buenos Aires Glacier; d) Syntrichia magellanica; e) edge of moraine at Buenos Aires Glacier; f) i - Acarospora macrocyclos, ii - Rhizoplaca aspidophora, iii - Candelaria murrayi.

Ornithocoprophilic lichen populations belonging to Rhizoplaca aspidophora, Candelaria murrayi, Acarospora macrocyclos, Buellia russa, and Caloplaca sublobulata were observed in an area of 196 m2 (P6), at the edge of the frontal moraine of Flora Glacier (Fig. 2, P6). Crustose and fruticose lichen species such as Usnea antarctica, Umbilicaria decussata, Buellia anisomera, and Caloplaca sublobulata were found at the moraine of the Southern face. However, fewer lichen species were found in Hope Bay compared to other Antarctic sites.

Rocky elevations covered with Umbilicaria decussata were found at Southern Hope Bay (Fig. 2, P8, and P9). This species, which has a foliaceous aspect and grey/clear shades, was found in four sections of the aforementioned location. This probably constitutes the bigger continuous populations of Umbilicaria in the Maritime Antarctica (Spielmann, field notes). Other lichen species, such as Usnea antarctica, Caloplaca sublobulata, Buellia anisomera, Buellia russa, Candelaria murrayi and Haematomma erythromma were distributed in a 380 m2 area. Moss species, such as Ceratodon purpureus, Polytrichum strictum, and Andreaea depressinervis, were collected in P8 and P9.

Some lichen species were found in Southern Hope Bay, near Five Lakes Valley; they were arranged on rocky, pebbly soils (patterned grounds) (Fig. 2, P10). Four lichen species and two bryophyte species were collected in this area; moreover, Hennediella antarctica was found only in P10.

The widespread distribution of penguin nests (Pygoscelis adeliae) leads to higher concentrations of ornithocoprophilous lichen populations adapted to high nutrient concentrations derived from bird nesting. Populations belonging to Caloplaca sublobulata living in an extensive rocky area to the center of Hope Bay were highlighted in brown (Fig. 2, P11). Lichens were found on rocks facing North at this point. The yellow/orange shade of Caloplaca sublobulata is different from the color of other species. Other lichens such as Buellia russa, Physcia dubia, Acarospora macrocyclos, and Mastodia tesselata, were also observed (Fig. 4).

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Figure 4
a) plant community at P7; b) i - Buellia russa, ii - Usnea antarctica; c) communitie of Umbilicaria at P8; d) iii - Umbilicaria decussata, iv - Buellia russa; e) community of Caloplaca at P11; f) v - Caloplaca sublobulata, vi - Mastodia tesselata.

Lichens were scarcer at Southern Boeckella Lake than in other Hope Bay areas - collection number 12 (Fig. 2, P12). This site is composed of fine soil sediments resulting from snow melting in glaciers located in higher landscapes and deposited on the Boeckella Lake edge. Sediment concentration and humidity on the edge of the lake favor moss growth rather than just lichen growth in this Hope Bay site. The bryophyte species Sanionia uncinata was the most frequent in this area.

The Northern and Northeastern parts of the lake were covered with great amounts of ornithocoprophilous lichens (Fig. 2, P13 and P14). Caloplaca sublobulata, Rhizoplaca aspidophora, and Acarospora macrocyclos were abundantly distributed in this area.

Five of the eight moss species in Hope Bay were collected near P15. The moss Andreaea regularis was collected in a small portion to the Northern area, near the Esperanza Station (military base).

Plant communities in Hope Bay covered different habitats influenced mosdtly by bird presence. Prasiola crispa patches, for example, were always located near guano deposits in penguin rookery depressions, enabling them to receive leachates (Kappen 1985, Pereira et al. 2013). The P. crispa population around the Argentinean Base are influenced by birds visiting the area and by the antropogenic activity. Similarly, ornithocoprophilic lichens were frequently observed in areas near bird nests. Species such as Acarospora macrocyclos, Buellia russa, Caloplaca sublobulata, and Physcia dubia were concentrated in the Central/Northern area due to the nutrients and moisture provided by bird colonies. These species are excellent indicators of environmental changes caused mostly by bird droppings, particularly those that coexist with Pygoscelis populations, as their presence is influenced by nesting behaviors and nutrient cycling in the area (Tatur 2002).

Although bird colonies promote the growth of ornithocoprophilic species, they also limit the establishment of species that cannot tolerate the high nutrient levels provided by penguins, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus (Redon 1985, Neustupa 1998, Schaefer et al. 2004, Simas et al. 2007, Almeida et al. 2020, Sacramento et al. 2023). Species such as Usnea antarctica, Umbilicaria decussata, and Pseudephebe minuscula were absent from the Northern/Central portion of Hope Bay but were abundant in areas farther away (coprophobic species). Thus, bird populations appear to be a primary factor influencing the composition of plant communities in Hope Bay.

Some lichen species thrive in specific habitats. Usnea antarctica populations at P7, for instance, were found in well-drained and exposed soils on the slopes of Mount Flora, while Umbilicaria decussata communities at P8 and P9 were restricted to elevated areas in Southwestern Hope Bay near the coast. Previous studies have reported similar distributions for these species, highlighting the dependence of lichen representatives on specific habitats and environmental conditions (Longton 1967, Schaefer et al. 2004, Krzewicka et al. 2024).

The dependence of certain species on environmental conditions influenced by bird colonies was also evident in Hope Bay. The highest concentration of green zones was observed surrounding penguin rookeries. The largest plant communities in Hope Bay were observed at P5 and P6, located on the front of moraines at Flora Glacier. This old Pygoscelis penguin rookery has deep guano deposits that support a dense lichen and moss community covering most of its surface.

The flat area on Flora Glacier is often formed by glacier meltwater, allowing several lichen and moss species to establish themselves. According to Lewis-Smith (1995), lichen communities grow in association with different moss species when water availability is favorable, sometimes covering extensive exposed landscapes.

Much of the terrain available for plant community development was covered by saxicolous lichens growing on rock surfaces. These lichens were primarily found on rocky faces in the Northern part of Hope Bay. This pattern was particularly evident in the P11 community and can be attributed to solar radiation exposure. Sunlight is a critical factor for vegetation growth in Antarctica, especially in regions with short winters and extended daylight hours (Kappen 2000, Yin et al. 2023). Rocky surfaces remain covered in ice for most of the year, but when exposed, they allow light interception by vegetation. North-facing rocky surfaces receive more solar radiation in summer, leading to increased surface temperatures and higher photosynthetic rates (Redon 1985, Kappen 1985, 2000, Poelking et al. 2014).

Unstable ground areas near Boeckella Lake and at Northern Five Lakes Valley (P12 and P10, respectively) hosted the sparsest plant communities in Hope Bay. Substrate instability and frequent soil disturbances hindered species establishment. Terrain stability is a crucial factor for plant community development in periglacial environments (Moura et al. 2012). Fine sediments deposited on lakeshores prevent the dense colonization of lichens in these areas. However, bryophytes such as Sanionia uncinata at P12 adapted better to these conditions due to their hydromorphic characteristics and preference for level substrates (Schaefer et al. 2004). Fruticose lichens like Usnea and Himantormia (this genus was not observed at Hope Bay) tend to occupy higher, wind-exposed grounds, whereas mosses are more commonly found on rocky pebbles or in sheltered areas with higher soil moisture (Longton 1967, Pereira et al. 2007, Poelking et al. 2014). Mosses like Polytrichastrum alpinum, Sanionia uncinata, and Syntrichia magellanica were observed forming small, scattered tufts in these habitats.

The discussion of Hope Bay’s floristic characteristics in comparison to other regions must be approached cautiously. The data presented in this study are not definitive. We interpreted Hope Bay as a transition zone between maritime and continental Antarctica due to its extensive vegetation cover; althought the site is classified as continental, and its richness is significantly lower than that of other nearby sites, such as South Bay, Livingston Island, where 200 species have been recorded (Sancho et al. 1999). Flowering plants, such as Deschampsia antarctica and Colobanthus quitensis, were absent from Hope Bay. The association of Usnea aurantiaco-atra and Himantormia lugubris was also absent. Maybe there are temperature and water limitations preventing their development. Examining the temperature thresholds required for these species as well as humidity data could provide further insight into their absence.

Mapping plant communities is essential for tracking ecological changes in this region, the accuracy of the current vegetation map is based on satellite image interpretation and field, ensuring precise boundaries that can be relocated and reassessed in future studies.

Mapping efforts will serve as a foundation for assessing environmental impacts from global climate change and localized disturbances in this region (Brabyn et al. 2006, Poelking et al. 2014).

CONCLUSIONS

The plant communities in Hope Bay (HB) are relatively scarce, with Prasiola crispa forming distinct and large green patches on the ground, while other vegetation types are more restricted in their distribution.

The overall species richness in HB is low compared to other Antarctic sites. The influence of birds on plant communities is evident, particularly in the case of ornithocoprophilic species that thrive in nutrient-enriched environments near penguin rookeries. Prasiola crispa, along with Caloplaca and Acarospora, is predominantly found near Pygoscelis adeliae nesting areas. Their distribution is strongly influenced by nutrient availability, particularly high nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations from bird leachates.

The dynamics of bird populations appear to be a primary factor affecting the composition of vegetation communities in HB, with ornithocoprophilic species thriving in nutrient-enriched environments, while coprophobic species are found in more isolated areas.

While HB shares some floristic and physiognomic characteristics with both Continental and Maritime Antarctica, despite the limited biodiversity we suggest it is more accurately classified as a transition zone. Possible shifts in species distribution could be tracked over time, revealing variations in water availability and broader global climate trends. Hope Bay holds ecological significance due to its distinct environmental conditions and potential as a site for monitoring vegetation changes in response to local environmental factors.

Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge the financial support from the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) and Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais (FAPEMIG), as well as thanks to the Brazilian Navy for the logistic support during the Antarctic expeditions and to the Argentinean Base Esperanza crew for the support during the field expedition in 2009.

  • Data availability
    All data are available upon reasonable request.

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Edited by

  • Handling editor
    Marcia Couri

Data availability

All data are available upon reasonable request.

Publication Dates

  • Publication in this collection
    14 Sept 2026
  • Date of issue
    2026

History

  • Received
    07 June 2025
  • Accepted
    30 Mar 2026
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