HIGHLIGHTS
•Integration between food pyramid and gut microbiome.
•Negative and positive effects of food on the gut microbiome using the food pyramid.
•SCFA-s-producing bacteria and their effects on the gut microbiome.
•Integration between food pyramid and gut microbiome.
•Negative and positive effects of food on the gut microbiome using the food pyramid.
•SCFA-s-producing bacteria and their effects on the gut microbiome.
| Food | Nutrient | Bacteria | Function | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Potato | Resistant starch and polyphenols | Bifidobacteria, Faecalibacterium prausnitzii and Lachnospira | Increases the SCFA, reduction of intestinal permeability and endotoxemia | 8 8. Wu Y, Hu H, Dai X, Che H, Zhang H. Effects of dietary intake of potatoes on body weight gain, satiety-related hormones, and gut microbiota in healthy rats. RSC Adv. 2019;9:33290-301. |
| White rice | Resistant starch | Blautia, Faecalibacterium prausnitzii | Antimicrobial activity; SCFA synthesis; lowering blood glucose | 15 15. Mano F, Ikeda K, Joo E, Fujita Y, Yamane S, Harada N, et al. The Effect of White Rice and White Bread as Staple Foods on Gut Microbiota and Host Metabolism. Nutrients. 2018;10:1323. |
| Whole grains | Flavonoids, ferulic acids | Bifidobacterium and butyrate producers (Eubacterium rectale, Roseburia faecis, and Roseburia intestinalis) | Increased fecal acetate and total SCFAs; anti-inflammatory effects | 7 7. Armet AM, Deehan EC, O’Sullivan AF, Mota JF, Field CJ, Prado CM, et al. Rethinking healthy eating in light of the gut microbiome. Cell Host Microbe. 2022;30:764-85. |
| White bread | Resistant starch | Increased Bifidobacterium, | Increases propionate, butyrate, and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1); decreases lipopolysaccharide (LPS) | 15 15. Mano F, Ikeda K, Joo E, Fujita Y, Yamane S, Harada N, et al. The Effect of White Rice and White Bread as Staple Foods on Gut Microbiota and Host Metabolism. Nutrients. 2018;10:1323. |
| Fruits | Resistant starch, flavonoids | Increased Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, Akkermansia muciniphila, Ruminococcaceae, Clostridiales, and Acidaminococcus. Inversely associated with Fusobacterium | Increasing production of SCFAs, maintaining intestinal mucosal integrity, improving insulin sensitivity and anti-inflammatory properties | 3 3. Jiang Z, Sun TY, He Y, Gou W, Zuo LS, Fu Y, et al. Dietary fruit and vegetable intake, gut microbiota, and type 2 diabetes: results from two large human cohort studies. BMC Med. 2020;18:371. |
| Vegetables | Metabolized glucosinolates, generating chemopreventive isothiocyanates | Increased Bacteroides, Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron | Decreased risk of certain cancers | 11 11. Liou CS, Sirk SJ, Diaz CAC, Klein AP, Fischer CR, Higginbottom SK, et al. A Metabolic Pathway for Activation of Dietary Glucosinolates by a Human Gut Symbiont. Cell. 2020;180:717-28.e19. |
| Raw vegetables | Resistant starch | Clostridium and Bacillus. Might increase the diversity of bacteria | Alleviate the symptoms of gluten related diseases | 11 11. Liou CS, Sirk SJ, Diaz CAC, Klein AP, Fischer CR, Higginbottom SK, et al. A Metabolic Pathway for Activation of Dietary Glucosinolates by a Human Gut Symbiont. Cell. 2020;180:717-28.e19. |
| Banana and garlic | Resistant starch and Inulin | Increased Bifidobacterium | Promoted satiety, and reduced body weight | 7 7. Armet AM, Deehan EC, O’Sullivan AF, Mota JF, Field CJ, Prado CM, et al. Rethinking healthy eating in light of the gut microbiome. Cell Host Microbe. 2022;30:764-85. |
| Mushrooms | Fiber, polysaccharides, heteroglucans, peptidoglucans, proteoglucans, and vitamins | Increased Bacteroides, Lactobacillus, Roseburia, Prevotella, Faecalibacterium prausnitzii and Bifidobacterium | Increases SCFA-producing bacteria. Reduced endotoxin-bearing Proteobacteria levels | 3 3. Jiang Z, Sun TY, He Y, Gou W, Zuo LS, Fu Y, et al. Dietary fruit and vegetable intake, gut microbiota, and type 2 diabetes: results from two large human cohort studies. BMC Med. 2020;18:371. , 11 11. Liou CS, Sirk SJ, Diaz CAC, Klein AP, Fischer CR, Higginbottom SK, et al. A Metabolic Pathway for Activation of Dietary Glucosinolates by a Human Gut Symbiont. Cell. 2020;180:717-28.e19. |
| Animal protein | Amino acids from dietary protein can be used for protein synthesis by gut microbes. The undigested protein and amino acids are mainly fermented into various bacteria metabolites, such as SCFA, hydrogen sulfide, and ammonia | High concentrations of dietary protein increase the populations of pathogens Escherichia coli, Fusubacterium, Coliforms, Streptococcus and Bacillus. Lower concentrations of dietary protein decrease butyrate-producing bacteria including Lactobacilli, Bifidobacteria and Saccharolytic | Some of these bacterial metabolites can be transported inside colonocytes and exert beneficial or deleterious effects on these epithelial cells depending on their toxic potential and concentration in the lumen. Lower dietary protein decreased substrate is available for E. coli proliferation. However, when the concentration of protein in the diet is too low to meet the basic requirement for the host, it can increase the abundance of potential pathogens and decrease the population of prebiotics | 12 12. Windey K, De Preter V, Verbeke K. Relevance of protein fermentation to gut health. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2012;56:184-96. |
| Dried legumes (beans, seeds, lentils) | Resistant starch | Ruminococcus spp and Bifidobacterium spp | Resistant starch has been reported to increase SCFA production. Phytic acid improves the composition of cecal organic acids, microbiota, and mucins, and it may decrease the levels of serum pro-inflammatory cytokines | 11 11. Liou CS, Sirk SJ, Diaz CAC, Klein AP, Fischer CR, Higginbottom SK, et al. A Metabolic Pathway for Activation of Dietary Glucosinolates by a Human Gut Symbiont. Cell. 2020;180:717-28.e19. |
| Milk and dairy products | Proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, amino acids, minerals and vitamins | Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium | Suppresses the growth of pathogens | 4 4. Aslam H, Marx W, Rocks T, Loughman A, Chandrasekaran V, Ruusunen A, et al. The effects of dairy and dairy derivatives on the gut microbiota: a systematic literature review. Gut Microbes. 2020;12:1799533. |
| Fish and Olive oil | Omega 3 and Omega 9 | Roseburia, Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, Bifidobacteria | Increases the SCFA, reduction of IL17, inflammation reduction via reducing intestinal permeability and endotoxemia | 14 14. Machate DJ, Figueiredo PS, Marcelino G, Guimarães RCA, Hiane PA, Bogo D, et al. Fatty Acid Diets: Regulation of Gut Microbiota Composition and Obesity and Its Related Metabolic Dysbiosis. Int J Mol Sci. 2020;21:4093. |
| High fat | Total fat | Increased Blautia, reduction of bacterial abundance, diversity, and richness, increase Clostridium bolteae, reductium Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, | Increased BMI, insulin resistance | 13 13. Wolters M, Ahrens J, Romaní-Pérez M, Watkins C, Sanz Y, Benítez-Páez A, et al. Dietary fat, the gut microbiota, and metabolic health - A systematic review conducted within the MyNewGut project. Clin Nutr. 2019;38:2504-20. |
| Fat | n-6/n-3 PUFA proportion at 3/1 to 11/1 (polyunsaturated fatty acids) | Increased Allobaculum, Isobaculum, Proteobacteria, and Lachnospiraceae | Low levels of triglycerides, decreasing or preventing adipose tissue fat accumulation, insulin resistance, inflammation, hypertension, atherosclerosis, obesity, cardiovascular diseases (CVD), and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) | 14 14. Machate DJ, Figueiredo PS, Marcelino G, Guimarães RCA, Hiane PA, Bogo D, et al. Fatty Acid Diets: Regulation of Gut Microbiota Composition and Obesity and Its Related Metabolic Dysbiosis. Int J Mol Sci. 2020;21:4093. |
| Fat (PUFA) | PUFA (Polyunsaturated fatty acids) (safflower, sesame, pumpkin seed, rice bran, human milk, olive, peanut, wheat germ and hemp) | Increased Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, and Lactobacillus | Increased gut microbiota diversity, increases SCFA production, reduction of BMI and T2DM | 14 14. Machate DJ, Figueiredo PS, Marcelino G, Guimarães RCA, Hiane PA, Bogo D, et al. Fatty Acid Diets: Regulation of Gut Microbiota Composition and Obesity and Its Related Metabolic Dysbiosis. Int J Mol Sci. 2020;21:4093. |
| Ultra-processed Foods | Food additives, enriched with salt, sugars, saturated fats, and hydrogenated fat | Reduction of Lactobacillus, increases the populations of pathogens | Reduced diversity, increased gut permeability, inflammatory properties | 13 13. Wolters M, Ahrens J, Romaní-Pérez M, Watkins C, Sanz Y, Benítez-Páez A, et al. Dietary fat, the gut microbiota, and metabolic health - A systematic review conducted within the MyNewGut project. Clin Nutr. 2019;38:2504-20. |
| High sugar diet | Glucose and fructose | Modifies the ratio of Proteobacteria and Bacteroidetes | Reduced diversity, increased gut permeability, promotes metabolic endotoxemia, development of metabolic dysregulation | 13 13. Wolters M, Ahrens J, Romaní-Pérez M, Watkins C, Sanz Y, Benítez-Páez A, et al. Dietary fat, the gut microbiota, and metabolic health - A systematic review conducted within the MyNewGut project. Clin Nutr. 2019;38:2504-20. |
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