Thermal comfort and physiological adaptation of Bali cattle across distinct altitudesABSTRACT.
Hot-humid climates typical in tropical pose major challenges for cattle production, whereas higher altitude offers a more comfortable climate for raising them. This study aimed to evaluate how altitude-driven microclimate differences influence the thermal comfort of Bali cattle. A total sample of 116 Bali cattle collected from two lowlands (Pangyangan and Serading) and one highland site (Sembalun; >1,000 m a.s.l). Air temperature (Ta), relative humidity (RH), and temperature-humidity index (THI) were recorded, along with rectal temperature (TR), respiration rate (RR), heart rate (HR), and Benezra’s adaptability coefficient (BCA). Body weight (BW), body condition score (BCS), and blood glucose levels were assessed to describe the nutritional condition at each location. Highland cattle experienced significantly lower Ta and THI (p<0.05), resulting in lower TR (37.9°C), RR, and HR, with an optimal BCA of 2.05. Conversely, cattle in lowland sites exhibited elevated physiological responses consistent with greater heat load. TR values remained within normal limits across all sites, although signs of heat stress were more evident in the lowlands. Variations in BW, BCS, and glucose primarily reflected feeding management rather than altitude effects. Principal component analysis identified Ta and THI as the major drivers of physiological stress in lowland cattle. Overall, the study demonstrates that cooler high-altitude environments enhance heat dissipation and improve thermoregulation in Bali cattle.
Keywords:
homeostatic balance; heat dissipation; heat stress; high altitude
Introduction
Tropical regions are characterized by mild, humid conditions, frequently resulting in a Temperature-Humidity Index (THI) that exceeds the comfort threshold for cattle (Habeeb et al., 2018). Such conditions induce heat stress, leading to reduced feeding intake, impaired growth, and overall lower performance. However, cattle raised in tropical regions can be managed more effectively when situated in microclimates at suitable elevations. In such areas, ambient temperature typically drops by about 6.5°C for every 1,000 meters of altitude, creating a cooler and more comfortable environment for livestock (Ahrens & Henson, 2009; Jump et al., 2009). Multiple studies have shown that livestock raised in tropical regions exhibit improved physiological responses and production performance when kept at cooler temperatures, particularly in highland environments. This trend has been observed in both Bali cattle (Kadarsih, 2004; Nuriyasa et al., 2016, 2018; Depison et al., 2022) and Holstein breeds (Broucek et al., 2020; Mariana et al., 2020).
Alleviate strategies such as watering, nutrition, cooling, housing, and management can ameliorate the deleterious effects of heat stress (Polsky & von Keyserlingk, 2017). In addition, selecting animals that are naturally heat-tolerant and well adapted to their native environments represents an effective approach for preserving genetic diversity, optimizing their productivity, and limiting heat-stress-related losses. Heat-tolerant cattle can generate and maintain normal physiology despite exposure to heat stress. The behavior, physiology, and morphology of native calves that grow and evolve in their natural environment closely resemble those of their native habitat (Archana, 2017). Native tropical cattle are continuously exposed to extreme temperatures and have adapted to survive in such conditions. One of the native tropical cattle that has long-lived and adapted to a humid tropical environment is Bali cattle.
Bali cattle (Bos javanicus) are widely acknowledged for their remarkable ability to thrive in tropical environments. Having developed under conditions of high temperature, elevated humidity, poor-quality forage, and seasonal climatic variation, they exhibit strong heat tolerance, effective utilization of fibrous feed, and stable physiological performance even under thermal stress (Aditia et al., 2017; Adiputra et al., 2025; Suhendro et al., 2025). Research by Aditia et al. (2017) on Bali cows kept in an oil-palm integration system showed that, despite daytime THI values ranging from 76 to 84, indicative of mild to severe heat stress, for both heifers and mature cows sustained normal thermoregulatory parameters, demonstrating a robust heat-tolerance capacity. At the molecular level, their adaptation to heat is further reinforced by genetic variation in heat-shock protein (HSP) genes, some of which may alter protein function and regulate cellular stress-response mechanisms (Suhendro et al., 2022, 2024; Hapsari et al., 2025), highlighting the heritable basis of thermotolerance in this breed.
Although tropical cattle are heat resistant, their adaptation and growth are compromised because most of the energy is diverted to maintenance requirements (Sejian et al., 2018). Animal plasticity needs to be studied more to discover whether to select cattle with heat tolerance and have favorable production for market traits. Raising tropical animals in a mild climate allows them to manifest their potential. There has been no investigation on the effect of altitude on thermotolerance and physical traits of Bali cattle; thus, this is a subject where more study is needed. This study aimed to evaluate how altitude-driven microclimate differences influence the thermal comfort of Bali cattle by comparing their physiological responses across lowland and highland environmental conditions.
Material and method
Sample collection
The experiment was conducted in compliance with the Animal Ethics Committees at Udayana University in Denpasar, Indonesia (Code ID: B/184/un14.2.9/ pt.01.04/2021). The samples were collected from September to October 2019 during the end of the dry season. This study was conducted on Bali cattle raised at three different locations and altitudes which were in the Livestock Breeding and Forage Centre (BPTU HPT) Denpasar in Pangyangan, Bali island (8°25'35" S latitude, 114°51'49" E longitude, and 46 m altitude); in Livestock Breeding and Forage Centre (BPT HMT) in Serading, Sumbawa island (8°34'04" S latitude, 117°29'48" E longitude, and 50 m altitude), and village breeding center at Mount Rinjani valley in Sembalun, Lombok island (8°21'48" S latitude, 116°31'49 E longitude, and 1,186 m altitude). Pangyangan and Serading are considered lowlands, while Sembalun is a highland.
Data collection used a purposive sampling technique, by selecting Bali cattle that have reached sexual and body maturity (≥2 years). A total of 116 Bali cattle were used in this study, consisting of 40 heads in Pangyangan, 41 heads in Serading, and 35 heads in Sembalun All experimental cattle in each location were reared in a semi-intensive cage and fed natural feed made from agricultural products and agricultural waste. In Serading, cattle received chopped forage and roughage (corn stover, Leucaena leaves, and elephant grass) and were periodically grazed in paddocks. In Sembalun, animals graze freely on pasture during the rainy season with occasional salt supplementation, whereas during the dry season they were housed and fed chopped forage with minor concentrate supplementation. in Pangyangan, cattle were given a concentrate of 1-1.5% of BW, forage of 10% of BW, and roughage in the paddock. Microclimate data were collected using a digital thermo-hygrometer for three days at each location, with measurements taken continuously from morning to late afternoon. Temperature and relative humidity were summarized as mean, maximum, minimum, SEM, and CV%, and THI was calculated to describe the heat load conditions during the sampling period.
Recording of physiology and physic traits
Physiology traits measured were respiratory rate (RR), heart rate (HR), rectal temperature (RT), and Benezra’s coefficient of adaptability (BCA). Physical traits measurements were body weight (BW), body condition score (BCS), and blood glucose level (BGL).
Respiratory rate (RR) was measured by visually observing abdominal movements with a stopwatch to estimate breaths per minute. Heart rate (HR) was measured by auscultation on left chest with stethoscope to obtain beats per minute. Rectal temperature (RT) was recorded using a digital rectal thermometer inserted into the rectum. Each measurement was duplicate, and all parameters were recorded 10 minutes after the animals were placed in the chute squeeze. The BCA was calculated based on the variables of RR and RT using the following Equation 1:
BCA = TR/38.3 + RR/23 (1)
where RT = rectal temperature; RR = respiration rate/minute; 38.33 = normal RT (ºC); 23 = normal RR/min.
Statistical analysis
The GLM of SAS Software was used to analyses microclimate differences at different altitudes. The effect of altitude and sex to physiology and physics traits was also evaluated by general linear (GLM) using SAS® software (SAS Institute Inc, 2009), and the mean values were compared with the LSD post hoc range test. The statistical model for physiological responses in different altitudes was Yijk= μ + ai + sk + ϵijk. Where Yijk= physiological responses, μ = population mean, ai = effect of altitude, sk = effect of sex, ϵijk = error. RStudio® software (Allaire, 2011) was used to conduct the principal components analysis and Pearson correlation.
Multivariate analysis was carried out using PCA and Pearson correlation in R Studio software (Allaire, 2011). PCA was designed to see the categorization of differences in altitude factors in Bali cattle and to find principal components which can describe the most important traits for such altitude. Pearson correlation is designed to determine the strength of a linear relationship between traits.
Results and discussions
Microclimate
This study selected two lowland and one highland site to enable a comparative assessment of the effect of altitude on microclimate and the physiological responses of Bali cattle. Although Pangyangan and Serading represent similar low-altitude conditions, they differ in management practices and observed air temperatures, thus providing valuable intraspecific variation within lowland environments. Meanwhile, Sembalun represents a high-altitude (>1,000 m a.s.l.) environment, allowing a clear contrast with the lowland settings and enabling the evaluation of cattle responses to a more favorable thermal environment.
Air temperature (Ta) differed significantly among locations (Table 1), with the highland exhibiting substantially cooler conditions. Highland Ta averaged 23.64ºC, which was significantly lower (p<0.05) than in Pangyangan (27.96ºC) and Serading (30.7ºC). In contrast, relative humidity (RH) showed no meaningful differences among sites. Ta and RH jointly determine the thermal load experienced by the animal, indexed as the Temperature-Humidity Index (THI) as a reliable representation of categorical index as animal comfort (Gantner et al., 2017). THI in Sembalun (70.51) was lower than Serading (78.79) and Pangyangan (77.02) which indicated heat-stress conditions in these lowlands as over 75. When Ta and RH both increase, the surrounding air becomes warm and moisture-laden, limiting the gradient for evaporative heat loss. This compromises the animal’s cooling capacity, forcing physiological systems to work harder to maintain core body temperature and homeostasis. This environmental burden explains why cattle often experience elevated respiratory rate, heart rate, and rectal temperature under high THI conditions (West, 2003).
Higher-altitude environments provide cooler temperatures due to adiabatic cooling, where reduced atmospheric pressure allows air molecules to spread out, lowering ambient temperatures (Kirchner et al., 2013). This naturally reduces THI and creates a more favorable microclimate for livestock. However, raising livestock above 2000 m altitude is not recommended due to lack of oxygen, higher exposure to UV rays, and water limitation (Reece et al., 2015). Air temperatures above ~30°C combined with moderate-to-high humidity typically elevate THI into the danger zone (>75). Under such conditions, cattle struggle to dissipate heat, and productivity may decline (Gantner et al., 2017). In contrast, the highland location in this study-maintained THI values within or near the comfort zone (<70), supporting better physiological stability.
Given that livestock performance is strongly influenced by environmental comfort, even superior genetics and adequate nutrition cannot optimize productivity if animals are exposed to high thermal load (Habeeb et al., 2023). The present findings emphasize that altitude-driven differences in microclimate-particularly through their effects on THI-play a crucial role in shaping the physiological responses of Bali cattle.
Physiologies
Rectal temperature (RT) of Bali cattle was significantly lower (p<0.05) in the highland site (Sembalun; 37.9°C) compared with Pangyangan (38.77°C) and Serading (38.81°C). Heart rate (HR) and respiration rate (RR) also showed the lowest level in Sembalun (Table 2). Consequently, Benezra’s coefficient of adaptability (BCA) indicated greater thermal comfort in Sembalun (2.05), approaching the ideal value of two that reflects higher adaptability (Vaidya et al., 2025).
Rectal temperature serves as the gold standard method for measuring core body temperature, as the rectum is well insulated and supplied by deep blood vessels (Miller et al., 2017). The typical RT range for beef cattle is 36.7-39.1°C, with early heat-stress signs appearing above 39.5°C (Reece et al., 2015). Hence, RT observed in this study within the normal physiological range, indicating that Bali cattle remine stable despite the stress microclimate conditions in Pangyangan and Serading. Nevertheless, the cooler highland environment helped cattle to maintain homeostasis by keeping body temperature to the lower of the normal range. These conditions potentially allow animals to allocate more energy toward productivity (Sejian et al., 2018). Unfortunately, the availability feed was not idea to support optimal weight gain.
Heat dissipation in cattle primarily occurs through evaporative mechanisms such as panting and sweating (West, 2003). Evaporation removes latent heat from the body surface and release into the environment. Increased RR accelerates this process by enhancing airflow over moist respiratory surfaces, allowing more moisture to evaporate into inhaled air. The warm, humid air is subsequently exhaled, carrying heat away. Panting, therefore, becomes the predominant evaporative cooling mechanism in animals which do not sweat efficiently (Robertshaw, 2006).
However, an increased respiration rate is ineffective without a proportional increase in heart rate, as the latter is necessary to accelerate blood circulation and transport heat to the body surface for dissipation (Wang et al., 2020). A higher heart rate is required to transport heat from the core organs to peripheral tissues where dissipation occurs. Vasodilation of cutaneous vessels facilitates this heat transfer; thus, HR must increase to maintain adequate blood pressure and perfusion while vessels are widened (Reece et al., 2015; Cheng & MacDonald, 2019). This interdependence explains the positive correlation between RR and HR (r = 0.33) observed in this study (Figure 1). Breathing causes moisture in the respiratory tract to evaporate and dissipate. If mechanisms of dissipating heat load as much as possible fail to maintain, body temperature leads to increases in rectal temperature (Rashamol et al., 2018). Therefore, RT positive corelated with HR (r = 0.50) and RR (r = 0.33).
Pearson correlation between physiology and physics of Bali cattle, microclimate, and altitude. RR: respiration rate, HR: Heart rate, TR: rectal temperature, Ta: ambient temperature, RH: relative humidity, THI: temperature humidity index.
Nutritional and physiological profiles
Body weight (BW), body condition score (BCS), and blood glucose concentration were measured to characterize the nutritional status of cattle across sites, not as primary variables for testing altitude effects. Although statistical differences were detected, these traits are strongly influenced by feed availability and management.
Higher BW and BCS in Pangyangan reflect better nutritional conditions. In contrast, cattle in Serading and Sembalun exhibited low BCS values (<2.2), indicating inadequate energy intake relative to requirements. Blood glucose values across all sites were below the normal physiological range for cattle (55-75 mg dL-1 (Reece et al., 2015)), suggesting a general energy deficit and reinforcing that glucose concentration should not be considered an altitude-driven physiological response. Thus, these measures serve only as contextual information to support the interpretation of the animals’ heat-stress physiology.
Multivariate interpretation
Figure 2 presents the PCA distribution of individuals according to altitude-associated environmental and physiological variables. The first two principal components explained 66.6% of the total variation. The clustering ellipse demonstrates clear separation of cattle reared at lowland sites, which occupy the right quadrant representing heat-stress conditions. Variables with the highest contribution are displayed in red, while the lowest intensities appear in green.
Temperature (Ta) and THI emerged as the most influential variables driving heat-stress responses in Pangyangan and Serading, followed by elevated BCA and RR. In contrast, the Sembalun population clustered opposite these variables, aligning with lower physiological stress and cooler microclimatic conditions.
PCA variance patterns further showed that Sembalun exhibited the least variation among individuals, indicating a more uniform and predictable environment. Meanwhile, cattle in Pangyangan and Serading displayed greater variability due to fluctuating microclimate and management factors inherent to lowland settings. The highland environment thus represents a more stable and thermally favorable system, whereas lowland regions pose higher and more variable heat-stress risk-though such risks may be mitigated through improved management.
Biplot analysis of the Bali cattle population and their physiological traits and microclimates. RR: respiration rate, HR: heart rate, TR: rectal temperature, BCA: Benezra’s coefficient of adaptability, Ta: ambient temperature, RH: relative humidity, THI: temperature humidity index.
Conclusion
This study demonstrates that altitude-driven microclimatic differences substantially influence the physiological responses of Bali cattle. The highland environment provided significantly cooler temperatures and lower THI, enabling cattle to maintain lower rectal temperature, respiration rate, and heart rate, and resulting in a more favorable Benezra’s adaptability coefficient. These findings confirm that Bali cattle experience greater thermal comfort and more stable homeostasis under cooler high-altitude conditions compared with lowland environments. Improving environmental conditions or adopting altitude-based or microclimate-modifying management strategies may enhance the physiological resilience of Bali cattle under tropical heat-stress conditions.
Data availability
The data that supports the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request
Acknowledgement
This research was funded by the Ministry of Research and Technology of the Republic of Indonesia through PMDSU (Grant number: 2127/IT3.L1/PN/2021). The authors appreciate all the support and facilities provided by BPTU-HMT Denpasar, BPT HMT Serading, and the village breeding center Sembalun during the research.
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