Multidrug-resistant Staphylococcus spp. isolated from dogs and cats attended at veterinary hospital in the Caatinga biome

Staphylococcus spp. multirresistentes isolados de cães e gatos atendidos em hospital veterinário no bioma da Caatinga

Abstract

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in bacteria isolated from companion animals is concerning, as human-animal interaction in nosocomial or household environments may favor sharing of these microorganisms and resistance genes, highlighting the need for constant investigations. The objective of this study was to evaluate the antimicrobial susceptibility profile of Staphylococcus spp. isolated from clinical samples, including swabs from surgical wounds, skin, ears and noses, as well as contents of submandibular nodules, collected from dogs and cats treated at a veterinary hospital in the Caatinga biome. Phenotypic and genotypic tests for antimicrobial resistance, biofilm formation, and enterotoxin genes were carried out. Overall, of 129 samples, 34 (26.4%; 95% CI = 18.8 – 34%) were identified as Staphylococcus spp. and, among these, 15 isolates (44.1%) of six species showed antimicrobial resistance profile. The most frequent isolates were S. aureus, S. intermedius, and S. pseudintermedius with 26.67% frequency. Isolated bacteria demonstrated the presence of important resistance genes such as vanA (40%), vanB (13.33%), and mecA (6.67%). The highest resistance rates among isolates were for penicillin (n = 15 isolates; 100%) and tetracycline (n = 12 isolates; 80%). Nine (60%) of the 15 isolates (four S. aureus, two S. intermedius, two S. pseudintermedius, and one S. epidermidis) were classified as multidrug-resistant (MDR). The other six isolates were resistant to one or two antibiotic classes. One canine isolate was positive for the methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) profile. No genes for enterotoxin production or biofilm were detected. These results reinforce the need for the prudent use of antimicrobials in veterinary medicine, as well as the rigorous adoption of biosafety practices. Moreover, the relevance of the Caatinga biome as a setting for monitoring antimicrobial resistance should be considered.

Keywords:
multidrug resistance; pets; One Health; veterinary hospital; methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

Resumo

A resistência antimicrobiana (RAM) em bactérias isoladas de animais de companhia é preocupante, visto que a interação humano-animal em ambientes hospitalares ou domésticos pode favorecer a disseminação desses microrganismos e genes de resistência, ressaltando a necessidade de investigações constantes. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o perfil de suscetibilidade antimicrobiana de Staphylococcus spp. isolados de amostras clínicas, incluindo swabs de feridas cirúrgicas, pele, ouvido e nariz, além de conteúdo de nódulos mandibulares, coletados de cães e gatos atendidos em um hospital veterinário no bioma da Caatinga. Foram realizados testes fenotípicos e genotípicos para resistência antimicrobiana, formação de biofilme e genes de enterotoxinas. No total, de 129 amostras, 34 (26,4%; IC 95% = 18,8 – 34%) foram identificadas como Staphylococcus spp. e, entre estas, 15 isolados (44,1%) de seis espécies apresentaram perfil de resistência antimicrobiana. Os isolados mais frequentes foram S. aureus, S. intermedius e S. pseudintermedius, com frequência de 26,67%. As bactérias isoladas demonstraram a presença de importantes genes de resistência, como vanA (40%), vanB (13,33%) e mecA (6,67%). As maiores taxas de resistência entre os isolados foram para penicilina (n = 15 isolados; 100%) e tetraciclina (n = 12 isolados; 80%). Nove (60%) dos 15 isolados (quatro S. aureus, dois S. intermedius, dois S. pseudintermedius e um S. epidermidis) foram classificados como multirresistentes (MDR). Os outros seis isolados foram resistentes à uma ou duas classes de antibióticos. Um isolado canino apresentou perfil positivo para Staphylococcus aureus resistente à meticilina (MRSA). Não foram detectados genes para produção de enterotoxinas ou formação de biofilme. Esses resultados reforçam a necessidade do uso prudente de antimicrobianos na medicina veterinária, bem como a adoção rigorosa de práticas de biossegurança. Além disso, deve-se considerar a relevância do bioma Caatinga como um ambiente para o monitoramento da resistência antimicrobiana.

Palavras-chave:
resistência a múltiplos medicamentos; animais de estimação; Saúde Única; hospital veterinário; Staphylococcus aureus resistente à meticilina

1. Introduction

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a problem of global concern, being characterized by the World Health Organization (WHO) as one of the top 10 global public health threats (Tang et al., 2023). The overuse of antimicrobials is pointed out as the main cause of selection of resistant bacteria, and the post-pandemic period of COVID-19 was a determining factor for the increase in the use of these drugs, mainly in human medicine (Bandyopadhyay and Samanta, 2020; WHO, 2020a). The large-scale use of antibiotics as prophylactic methods and growth promoters in food-producing animal herds is widely considered one of the main pillars for the dispersion of AMR in the human-animal context, underestimating the participation of small animals (Allel et al., 2023). However, investigations highlight the presence of resistant bacteria in companion animals, with an increasing number of these pathogens of importance in dogs and cats (Pomba et al., 2017).

The genus Staphylococcus spp. is frequently associated with opportunistic infections, such as skin and soft tissue infections in humans and animals. The occurrence of multidrug resistance among these bacteria generates serious implications for the treatment of infections, since the presence of the mecA gene or its homologue mecC confers resistance to most β-lactam antibiotics, with the exception of 5^th generation cephalosporins for human use (Morris et al., 2017), also limiting therapy in veterinary medicine (Di Cerbo et al., 2019). In such cases, critical antibiotics for human health may be required for animal treatment, demonstrating the interconnection between resistant pathogens in humans and animals (Bandyopadhyay and Samanta, 2020). Estimates highlight that in the United States, 70% of antibiotics for human treatment are also used in the veterinary medicine field (Bellato et al., 2022).

The Caatinga is the only biome found exclusively in Brazil; it is located primarily in the Northeast region and is characterized by challenging conditions, such as intense solar radiation, soils with high temperatures and salinity, as well as water and nutrient scarcity (Lacerda Júnior et al., 2017). These characteristics can exert intense selective pressure on microbial communities, favoring the development of adaptive mechanisms for survival (Araujo et al., 2021; Fernandes et al., 2025). These strategies may be genetically linked to determinants of antimicrobial resistance which, through co-selection processes, can contribute to the maintenance of the environmental resistome, making their investigation essential for understanding the dynamics of the spread of this resistance (Delgado-Baquerizo et al., 2022; González Román et al., 2025).

The mechanisms by which bacteria acquire resistance to antimicrobials in general are complex and multi-causal, designating AMR as a "silent pandemic", deeming the rapid evolution of microorganisms opposed to the limited introduction of new antimicrobials (Prestinaci et al., 2015). Thus, the objective of this work was to isolate bacteria of the genus Staphylococcus from dogs and cats in the clinical routine of a university veterinary hospital located in the Caatinga biome, northeastern Brazil, as well as to identify antimicrobial resistance genes in these bacteria.

2. Material and Methods

2.1. Study location and sample collection

From February 2022 to March 2023, 129 clinical samples were collected from dogs and cats, of which 76 (58.9%) were from dogs and 53 (41.1%) from cats. The animals came from the medical and surgical clinical routine care at the Prof. Dr. Ivon Macedo Tabosa University Veterinary Hospital (HVU) of the Center for Health and Rural Technology (CSTR), Federal University of Campina Grande (UFCG), Patos Campus - Paraíba, in the northeastern semiarid region, Brazil. The animals came from municipalities covered by the Caatinga biome. The biological materials collected were: surgical wound swab: 30/129 (23.26%); urine: 28/129 (21.71%); ear swab: 20/129 (15.50%); purulent abscess secretion: 12/129 (9.30%); back skin wound swab: 12/129 (9.30%); right thoracic limb skin wound swab: 6/129 (4.65%); nasal swab: 4/129 (3.10%); bone implant plate swab: 3/129 (2.33%); ocular swab: 3/129 (2.33%); rectal swab: 2/129 (1.55%); oral swab: 2/129 (1.55%); tail skin wound swab: 2/129 (1.55%); face skin wound swab: 2/129 (1.55%); vaginal secretion swab: 1/129 (0.78%); mandibular nodule content: 1/129 (0.78%); subcutaneous fluid: 1/129 (0.78%). Samples were packed into tubes with Stuart transport medium (Interlab, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil) and transported under refrigeration (2–8 °C) to the microbiology laboratory for processing.

2.2. Isolation and identification of Staphylococcus spp.

The samples were enriched in Brain Heart Infusion broth (KASVI, São José dos Pinhais, Paraná, Brazil) at 37°C for 24 hours and subsequently seeded on mannitol salt agar (Difco Laboratories Inc., Detroit, USA), and after cultivation the plates were incubated at 37°C (± 1°C) for 24-48 hours, and the isolated colonies were processed for Gram staining, catalase and coagulase tests, and mannitol fermentation. Species confirmation was performed using the Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization -- Time of Flight (MALDI-TOF) technique (Bier et al., 2017).

2.3. Phenotypic test of antimicrobial resistance

In vitro antimicrobial susceptibility was evaluated by the disk diffusion method on Müller-Hinton agar, as recommended by the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI, 2021). The inoculum concentration corresponded to the turbidity of the 0.5 McFarland scale. After seeding, plates were kept at an incubation temperature of 37°C (± 1°C) for 24 hours and the results were interpreted by measuring the inhibition zones (CLSI, 2021). The antimicrobials evaluated were: clindamycin (30μg), erythromycin (30μg), sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim (10μg), gentamicin (30μg), amikacin (30 μg), tetracycline (30 μg), cefoxitin (30 μg), oxacillin (30μg), penicillin (30 μg), norfloxacin (30 μg), chloramphenicol (30 μg), and linezolid (10μg). S. aureus ATCC 25923 strain was used as standard control.

2.4. Molecular detection of antimicrobial resistance, biofilm formation, and enterotoxin genes

Isolates that showed antimicrobial resistance profile on phenotypic tests were selected for the molecular analysis. For bacterial DNA extraction, the Dneasy Blood and Tissue kit (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany) was used on BHI broth culture samples, according to the manufacturer's recommendations. Detection of antimicrobial resistance, biofilm formation, and enterotoxin genes were carried out by PCR for the genes SEA, SEB, SEC, SED, SEE, femA, blaZ, mecA, mecC, icaD, TetL, TetM, TetK, TetO, TetS, vanA, and vanB, as previously described (Clark et al., 1993; Dutka-Malen et al., 1995; Mehrotra et al., 2000; Arciola et al., 2001; Ng et al., 2001; Rosec and Gigaud, 2002; Haveri et al., 2005; Paterson et al., 2012; Pedroso et al., 2018), using specific primers (Table 1). Reference strains S. aureus ATCC25923, ATCC13565, ATCC14458, ATCC19095, ATCC23235, ATCC27664, and USA400 were used as positive controls, and ultrapure water as negative control.

Table 1
Resistance genes analyzed and function, primer sequences, amplicon sizes in base pairs (bp), and respective references.

Gene	Function	Primer sequence (5′–3′)	Amplicon size (bp)	Reference
SEA	Enterotoxin encoding genes	F: TGCATGTTTTCAGAGTTAATC R: ACGATCAATTTTTACAGC	544	Rosec and Gigaud (2002)
SEB		F: TCTTTGTCGTAAGATAAACTTC R: GAATGATATTAATTCGCATC	416
SEC		F: AAATCGGATTAACATTATCCA R: GACATAAAAGCTAGGAATTT	257
SED		F: CCACCATAACAATTAATGC R: TTACTAGTTTGGTAATATCTCCTT	278
SEE		F: TAACTTACCGTGGACCC R: ATAGATAAAGTTAAAACAAGCAA	209
icaD	Biofilm production	F: CGTGTTTTCAACATTTAATGCAA R: ATGGTCAAGCCCAGACAGAG	198	Arciola et al. (2001)
blaZ	Penicillin resistance	F: GCTTGACCACTTTTATGAGC R: AGGAGATTTGCCTATGCTTC	569	Haveri et al. (2005)
femA	Methicillin resistance	F: GATAAAGAAGAAACCAGCAG R: AAAAAAGCACATAACAAGCG	132	Mehrotra et al. (2000)
mecA		F: CCAATTCCACATTGTTTCGGTCTAA R: GTAGAAATGACTGAAAGTCCGATA	310	Pedroso et al. (2018)
mecC		F: GAAGATCTTTTCCGTTTTCAGC R: GAAAAAAAGGCTTAGAACGCCTC	188	Paterson et al. (2012)
tetL	Tetracycline resistance	F: GTATCCCACCAATGTAGCCG R: TCGTTAGCGTGCTGTCATTC	267	Ng et al. (2001)
tetM		F: CGGTAAAGTTCGTCACACAC R: GTGGACAAAGGTACAACGAG	406
tetK		F: CAGCAGATCCTACTCCTT R: TCGATAGGAACAGCAGTA	169
tetO		F: TCCCACTGTTCCATATCGTCA R: AACTTAGGCATTCTGGCTCAC	515
tetS		F: ATGTTTTTGGAACGCCAGAG R: CATAGACAAGCCGTTGACC	667
vanA	Vancomycin resistance	F: GTACAATGCGGCCGTTA R: GGGAAAACGACAATTGC	732	Dutka-Malen et al. (1995)
vanB		F: CCGCCATCCTCCTGCAAAAAA R: GTGACAAACCGGAGGCGAGGA	430	Clark et al. (1993)

2.5. Data analysis

The adherence G-test was used to compare the frequencies of isolated bacteria according to species, and the adherence chi-square test was used to compare the frequencies of isolated bacteria between dogs and cats. The binomial 95% confidence interval (95% CI) was calculated for the frequency of Staphylococcus spp. The significance level deemed was 5% (P ≤ 0.05) and analyses were ran using BioEstat 5.4 software (Ayres et al., 2007).

3. Results

Overall, of the 129 samples, 34 (26.4%; 95% CI = 18.8 – 34%) were identified as Staphylococcus spp. and, among these, 15 isolates (44.1%) of six species showed antimicrobial resistance profile. Twelve (80%) out of the 15 isolates were coagulase-positive (CoPS) and three (20%) coagulase-negative (CoNS). The Staphylococcus spp. species identified were four (26.7%) S. pseudintermedius, four (26.7%) S. aureus, four (26.7%) S. intermedius, one (6.7%) S. epidermidis, one (6.7%) S. felis, and one (6.7%) S. schleiferi (Table 2). Staphylococcus spp. were identified in 10 (66.7%) samples from dogs and in five (33.3%) samples from cats, however, there was no statistical difference between the frequencies (P = 0.302). The species isolated from dogs were S. intermedius (four isolates; 40%), S. aureus (three isolates; 30%), and S. pseudintermedius (three isolates; 30%). In cats, the species isolated were S. schleiferi (one isolate; 20%), S. aureus (one isolate; 20%), S. felis (one isolate; 20%), S. epidermidis (one isolate; 20%), and S. pseudintermedius (one isolate; 20%).

Table 2
Staphylococcus spp. species, number of positive samples and frequency (%).

Staphylococcus spp. especies	Number of positive samples	Frequency (%)
S. aureus	4	26.7
S. intermedius	4	26.7
S. pseudintermedius	4	26.7
S. epidermidis	1	6.7
S. felis	1	6.7
S. schleiferi	1	6.7
Total	15	100

The antimicrobials with the highest frequencies of resistant bacteria were penicillin (n = 15 isolates; 100%) and tetracycline (n = 12 isolates; 80%). Nine (60%) of the 15 isolates (four S. aureus, two S. intermedius, two S. pseudintermedius, and one S. epidermidis) were categorized as multidrug-resistant (MDR) to the classes of penicillins, tetracyclines, cephamycins, and lincosamides.

In molecular analysis, the most frequent resistance genes were blaZ and vanA, detected in 15 (100%) and 6 (40%) isolates, respectively. The genes TetM, TetL, TetK, vanB, and mecA were detected in five (33.3%), four (26.7%), four (26.7%), two (13.3%), and one (6.7%) isolates, respectively (Table 3). No enterotoxin or biofilm-associated genes were detected.

Table 3
Staphylococcus isolates, animal species, biological samples, resistance genes and antimicrobial susceptibility profile. In the “antimicrobial susceptibility profile” section, white cells represent susceptibility, gray cells represent intermediate resistance, and black cells represent resistance.

Isolate	Animal species	Biological samples	Resistance genes	Antimicrobial susceptibility profile
				OXA	CFO	PEN	TET	GEN	AMI	CLI	ERY	SUT	LNZ	NOR	CHL
S. aureus	Dog	Mandibular nodule content	BlaZ, TetM
S. intermedius	Dog	Tail skin wound swab	BlaZ, VanA, TetL
S. intermedius	Dog	Face skin wound swab	BlaZ, TetK
S. intermedius	Dog	Ear swab	BlaZ, TetM
S. aureus	Dog	RTL skin wound swab	BlaZ, mecA, VanA, VanB, TetM
S. pseudintermedius	Dog	Ear swab	BlaZ, VanA, VanB, TetK
S. aureus	Dog	Face skin wound swab	BlaZ, VanA, TetL
S. pseudintermedius	Dog	Ear swab	BlaZ, VanA, TetM
S. pseudintermedius	Dog	Ear swab	BlaZ, TetL
S. intermedius	Dog	Ear swab	BlaZ
S. schleiferi	Cat	Nasal swab	BlaZ
S. aureus	Cat	Surgical wound swab	BlaZ, VanA, TetM
S. felis	Cat	Nasal swab	BlaZ, TetK
S. epidermidis	Cat	Surgical wound swab	BlaZ, TetK
S. pseudintermedius	Cat	Surgical wound swab	BlaZ, TetL

• RTL = Right thoracic limb; OXA = oxacillin; CFO = ceftiofur; PEN = penicillin; TET = tetracycline; GEN = gentamicin; AMI = amikacin; CLI = clindamycin; ERY = erythromycin; SUT = sulfamethoxazole + trimethoprim; LNZ = linezolid; NOR = norfloxacin; CHL = chloramphenicol.

4. Discussion

The genus Staphylococcus spp. is commonly found in the skin and mucous membranes microbiota of humans and animals; however, some species can cause important opportunistic infections for both human and animal medicine (Kowalewicz et al., 2023). In this study, Staphylococcus spp. with antimicrobial resistance profiles were isolated from dogs and cats in the clinical routine of a veterinary hospital in the Caatinga biome. S. pseudintermedius, S. aureus, and S. intermedius were the most frequently isolated coagulase-positive species (CoPS), while S. epidermidis, S. felis, and S. schleiferi were the most prevalent coagulase-negative species (CoNS). S. pseudintermedius was one of the most common isolates in canine and feline conditions. This microorganism is considered an opportunistic pathogen in healthy dogs, being responsible for most cases of pyoderma (Lynch and Helbig, 2021; Rana et al., 2022). In felines, although not being part of the microbiota, this bacterium has been isolated from healthy and sick cats, mainly in cases associated with household cohabitation with dogs (Bierowiec et al., 2021; Ma et al., 2020).

Colonization of the skin and mucous membranes of companion animals by S. pseudintermedius, especially dogs, is directly related to the recovery of this bacterium in human clinical samples (Small et al., 2021; Glajzner et al., 2023). Its zoonotic potential is highly recognized by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA, 2023), being associated with infections of the skin, soft tissues, and invasive procedures, especially among hospitalized patients who have or had prior contact with companion animals (Moses et al., 2023).

S. aureus was also a frequent isolate, considered a ubiquitous microorganism, capable of colonizing and infecting humans and animals (Bruce et al., 2022). In dogs and cats, this bacterium is mainly associated with pustular dermatitis and food poisoning (Algammal et al., 2020). In human pathogenesis, these bacteria are involved in cases of community-acquired and hospital-acquired skin and soft tissue infections, as well as more severe cases such as endocarditis and bacteremia (Olaniyi et al., 2017). There are data on the isolation of highly resistant strains of S. aureus among pet owners and domestic animals, as well as evidence of the transmission of these microorganisms between these groups, demonstrating the need for holistic approaches to mitigate the spread of AMR (Das et al., 2023; Jin et al., 2023).

Another member of CoPS that showed a higher isolation frequency was S. intermedius. Considered a common constituent of the animal microbiota, it is quite related to cases of pyoderma and external otitis. Although not frequent in human infections, methicillin-resistant S. intermedius was isolated from a case of tenosynovitis caused after bites from a feline with a history of antibiotic therapy for severe pyoderma (Takeuchi et al., 2023). CoNS, once considered only as common human and animal microbiota, are becoming increasingly important pathogens in nosocomial infections related to biofilm formation on catheters, prostheses, and medical devices (Fišarová et al., 2019). Furthermore, CoNS are reservoirs of resistance and virulence genes, evidencing their importance in the transfer of these genes to different bacteria, including CoPS species (Rossi et al., 2017).

S. epidermidis and S. felis are deemed important pathogens in small animals, mainly in skin and ear infections in dogs, as well as lower urinary tract diseases, otitis, and eye infections in cats (Thomson et al., 2022). In humans, S. epidermidis is related to cases of endocarditis, septicemia, wound, bone and joint infections (Abdel-Moein and Zaher, 2020). Although rare, S. felis was isolated from a human surgical site infection, showing clonal similarity with isolates from one of the felines that cohabited with the patient, denoting intra-household sharing, as well as its zoonotic potential (Sips et al., 2023).

S. schleiferi is a bacterium with variable coagulase, being classified as S. schleiferi subsp. schleiferi (coagulase-negative) and S. schleiferi subsp. coagulans (coagulase-positive), currently reclassified as S. coagulans (Madhaiyan et al., 2020). Nosocomial infections related to medical devices, wounds, and surgical sites, in addition to bacteremia, endocarditis, and urinary tract infections, are problems attributed to S. schleiferi in human pathogenesis (Naing et al., 2023). There is evidence of a case of human bacteremia and osteomyelitis, in which S. schleiferi was isolated from both the patient and her dog, which had purulent otitis, demonstrating its zoonotic capacity (Yarbrough et al., 2017). Considered an opportunistic bacterium in dogs, mainly pyoderma, external otitis, and superficial folliculitis, the occurrence of S. schleiferi in pyogenic infections in cats is rare (Morris et al., 2017). Interestingly, in this research, the only isolate of S. schleiferi came from a clinical sample of a nasal swab from a feline, showing that, although uncommon, this bacterium can colonize and cause infections in different anatomical sites and in animal species different from the usual, and may even remain in the hospital environment, maximizing the chances of nosocomial infections.

In Brazil, there are still few studies exploring the antimicrobial susceptibility profile of Staphylococcus spp. related to companion animals. In this research, the frequency of phenotypic resistance of Staphylococcus spp. isolates was highest for penicillin, followed by tetracycline, consistent with previous results (Souto Sobrinho et al., 2024). A similar resistance profile was reported in Staphylococcus spp. from healthy dogs and cats in the Southern region of Brazil, with 61.8% of isolates resistant to penicillin and less than 20% to tetracycline (Silva et al., 2025). These results can be explained by the frequent use of these antibiotics in veterinary medicine, both in companion animals and in food-producing and exotic animals (Caneschi et al., 2023).

In terms of northeastern Brazil, studies exploring the resistance of Staphylococcus spp. in companion animals are few. Resistance of these bacteria to β-lactams has been reported in large animals (Krewer et al., 2015), as well as in cases of canine external otitis, of which 11.47% were methicillin-resistant with multidrug-resistant profile (Carvalho et al., 2019). Furthermore, resistant strains of S. aureus were recovered from the veterinary environment and professionals, as well as from pet owners and their animals in a veterinary hospital located in the Atlantic Forest biome area in northeastern Brazil (Leite et al., 2023).

Multidrug resistance (MDR) is an emerging public health concern and there are data on the high prevalence of MDR Staphylococcus spp. isolates in companion animals. Dogs and cats can be important reservoirs of these bacteria, evidencing that the transmissibility of these microorganisms among pets, owners, and health professionals is a pillar for the dissemination of AMR (Araújo et al., 2024; Marco-Fuertes et al., 2024; Thomson et al., 2022).

The origin of multidrug resistance in Staphylococcus spp. was largely attributed to the selective pressure of methicillin use in humans, but there is evidence of the isolation of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) from European hedgehogs in the pre-antibiotic era, suggesting that the co-evolutionary adaptation of S. aureus was associated with hedgehogs colonized by dermatophyte fungi. The evolutionary history of these microorganisms connects the One Health scenarios, demonstrating that the use of this approach is essentially necessary for understanding and managing AMR (Larsen et al., 2022).

In this study, 60% of isolates showed multidrug resistance, mainly S. aureus. Methicillin resistance, in line with the multidrug resistance presented by S. aureus strains, tends to increase, with a global frequency of 40.7% (Couto et al., 2016). The antimicrobial susceptibility profile of S. aureus from 1999 to 2018 demonstrated an increasing rate of resistance to penicillin (81.8%), of which more than half of the isolates were MRSA (56.4%) and 14.5% were MDR (Costa et al., 2022).

A study carried out in southeastern Brazil showed that 48.11% of animals were positive for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus (MRS) and of these, 38.7% were dogs and 10.4% were cats (Sfaciotte et al., 2025). Consistent with these results, the canine isolates in the present study also showed a higher resistance rate and one canine S. aureus isolate was positive for the MRSA profile. Although MRSA was originally recovered from nosocomial and community infections, recent evidence highlights human-animal cohabitation as a source of reciprocal exchange and dispersion of these microorganisms (Abrudan et al., 2023).

The blaZ gene was detected in all Staphylococcus spp. isolates, consolidating the high frequency of resistance to β-lactams, also described in other studies (Bellato et al., 2022; Moses et al., 2023). The second most frequent gene was vanA, and according to the WHO, methicillin-resistant S. aureus with reduced susceptibility to vancomycin is considered a high-priority global pathogen (WHO, 2020b). In this research, one canine S. aureus isolate simultaneously presented the mecA, vanA, and vanB genes, being phenotypically resistant to oxacillin. Vancomycin resistance is concerning cause of mortality when the pathogenic agent is MRSA (Wijesekara et al., 2017). Furthermore, it has been reported that the use of Avoparcin (a vancomycin analog) in livestock farming favored the resistance of Enterococcus to vancomycin (VRE) of the vanA type. The global burden of VRE in food products of animal origin was estimated at 11.7% in 2021 (Lawpidet et al., 2021). Consequently, VRE can colonize the intestinal microbiota of humans and animals through these foods, favoring the spread of this gene to other microorganisms through the food chain.

High-level vancomycin resistance in S. aureus was described in 2002, being acquired through the Tn1546 transposon containing the plasmid vanA gene from Enterococcus faecalis (CDC, 2002; Gardete and Tomasz, 2014). In general, S. aureus was the main species carrying the vanA gene in this research, followed by S. pseudintermedius. Regarding the latter, although a rare finding, there are reports of strains of canine origin showing intermediate resistance to vancomycin (Moreira et al., 2020), as well as the recovery of a resistant strain from a healthy dog (Viñes et al., 2022). However, S. aureus is the pathogen most correlated with this resistance, given that vancomycin is the "last resort" antibiotic for severe MRSA infections in humans (Wijesekara et al., 2017).

In the present study, phenotypic tests for vancomycin resistance were not performed, which constitutes a major limitation, since it was not possible to assess whether these genes were functionally expressed. However, the vanA and vanB genes are plasmid-borne and easily disseminated through horizontal transfer (Gardete and Tomasz, 2014; González Román et al., 2025). The presence of these genes in bacteria isolated from companion animals has great epidemiological relevance, given the low use of vancomycin in veterinary medicine, raising the possibility of resistance gene exchange between microorganisms from the nosocomial environment and the human-companion animal relationship, highlighting the importance of the One Health approach in the AMR context.

5. Conclusion

The results obtained from the isolation of resistant strains of Staphylococcus spp. in dogs and cats treated in veterinary clinical routine reinforce the need for the prudent use of antimicrobials in veterinary medicine, as well as the rigorous adoption of biosafety practices. The detection of these bacteria in companion animals highlights the role of these hosts as potential reservoirs of bacteria carrying resistance genes, evidencing the importance of the One Health approach. The increasing exchange of resistance determinants between human and animal microorganisms underscores the urgency of integrated strategies to avoid the spread of antimicrobial resistance in different ecosystems. Moreover, the relevance of the Caatinga biome as a setting for monitoring antimicrobial resistance should be considered.

Acknowledgements

Fundação de Apoio à Pesquisa do Estado da Paraíba (FAPESQ), for the financial support (financial code: 47340.673.29278.09082021) and the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) – Brasil, for the fellowship.

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

• Ethics and consent
  This study was approved by the Animal Use Ethics Committee of the Federal University of Campina Grande (UFCG), under protocol no. 18/2022.

References

• ABDEL-MOEIN, K.A. and ZAHER, H.M., 2020. The nasal carriage of coagulase-negative staphylococci among animals and its public health implication. Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases, vol. 20, no. 12, pp. 897-902. https://doi.org/10.1089/vbz.2020.2656 PMid:32857680.
  » https://doi.org/10.1089/vbz.2020.2656
• ABRUDAN, M.I., SHAMANNA, V., PRASANNA, A., UNDERWOOD, A., ARGIMÓN, S., NAGARAJ, G., GREGORIO, S.D., GOVINDAN, V., VASANTH, A., DHARMAVARAM, S., KEKRE, M., AANENSEN, D.M. and RAVIKUMAR, K.L., 2023. Novel multidrug-resistant sublineages of Staphylococcus aureus clonal complex 22 discovered in India. MSphere, vol. 8, no. 5, pp. e0018523. https://doi.org/10.1128/msphere.00185-23 PMid:37698417.
  » https://doi.org/10.1128/msphere.00185-23
• ALGAMMAL, A.M., HETTA, H.F., ELKELISH, A., ALKHALIFAH, D.H.H., HOZZEIN, W.N., EL BATIHA, G., EL NAHHAS, N. and MABROK, M.A., 2020. Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): one health perspective approach to the bacterium epidemiology, virulence factors, antibiotic-resistance, and zoonotic impact. Infection and Drug Resistance, vol. 13, pp. 3255-3265. https://doi.org/10.2147/IDR.S272733 PMid:33061472.
  » https://doi.org/10.2147/IDR.S272733
• ALLEL, K., DAY, L., HAMILTON, A., LIN, L., FURUYA-KANAMORI, L., MOORE, C.E., VAN BOECKEL, T., LAXMINARAYAN, R. and YAKOB, L., 2023. lobal antimicrobial-resistance drivers: an ecological country-level study at the human–animal interface. The Lancet. Planetary Health, vol. 7, no. 4, pp. e291-e303. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(23)00026-8
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(23)00026-8
• ARAUJO, A.S.F., OLIVEIRA, L.M.S., MELO, V.M.M., ANTUNES, J.E.L., ARAUJO, F.F. and MENDES, L.W., 2021. Distinct taxonomic composition of soil bacterial community across a native gradient of Cerrado-Ecotone-Caatinga. Applied Soil Ecology, vol. 161, pp. 103874. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2020.103874
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2020.103874
• ARAÚJO, D., OLIVEIRA, R., SILVA, B.L., CASTRO, J., RAMOS, C., MATOS, F., ALMEIDA, C. and SILVA, S., 2024. Antimicrobial resistance patterns of Staphylococcus spp. isolated from clinical specimens of companion animals in Northern Portugal, 2021–2023. The Veterinary Journal, vol. 305, pp. 106153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2024.106153 PMid:38821205.
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2024.106153
• ARCIOLA, C.R., BALDASSARRI, L. and MONTANARO, L., 2001. Presence of icaA and icaD genes and slime production in a collection of staphylococcal strains from catheter-associated infections. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, vol. 39, no. 6, pp. 2151-2156. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.39.6.2151-2156.2001 PMid:11376050.
  » https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.39.6.2151-2156.2001
• AYRES, M., AYRES JÚNIOR, J.R.M., AYRES, D.L. and SANTOS, A.S., 2007. BioEstat 5.0: aplicações estatísticas nas áreas das ciências biológicas e médicas Belém: Sociedade Civil Mamirauá, 364 p.
• BANDYOPADHYAY, S. and SAMANTA, I., 2020. Antimicrobial resistance in agri-food chain and companion animals as a re-emerging menace in post-COVID epoch: low-and middle-income countries perspective and mitigation strategies. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, vol. 7, pp. 620. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2020.00620 PMid:33195500.
  » https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2020.00620
• BELLATO, A., ROBINO, P., STELLA, M.C., SCARRONE, L., SCALAS, D. and NEBBIA, P., 2022. Resistance to critical important antibacterials in Staphylococcus pseudintermedius strains of veterinary origin. Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland), vol. 11, no. 12, pp. 1758. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics11121758 PMid:36551415.
  » https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics11121758
• BIER, D., TUTIJA, J.F., PASQUATTI, T.N., OLIVEIRA, T.L., ARAUJO, F.R. and VERBISCK, N.V., 2017. Identification by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry of Salmonella spp. and Escherichia coli isolated from bovine carcasses. Pesquisa Veterinária Brasileira, vol. 37, no. 12, pp. 1373-1379. https://doi.org/10.1590/s0100-736x2017001200003
  » https://doi.org/10.1590/s0100-736x2017001200003
• BIEROWIEC, K., MISZCZAK, M., KORZENIOWSKA-KOWAL, A., WZOREK, A., PŁÓKARZ, D. and GAMIAN, A., 2021. Epidemiology of Staphylococcus pseudintermedius in cats in Poland. Scientific Reports, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 18898. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-97976-z PMid:34556720.
  » https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-97976-z
• BRUCE, S.A., SMITH, J.T., MYDOSH, J.L., BALL, J., NEEDLE, D.B., GIBSON, R. and ANDAM, C.P., 2022. Shared antibiotic resistance and virulence genes in Staphylococcus aureus from diverse animal hosts. Scientific Reports, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 4413. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-08230-z PMid:35292708.
  » https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-08230-z
• CANESCHI, A., BARDHI, A., BARBAROSSA, A. and ZAGHINI, A., 2023. The use of antibiotics and antimicrobial resistance in veterinary medicine, a complex phenomenon: a narrative review. Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland), vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 487. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics12030487 PMid:36978354.
  » https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics12030487
• CARVALHO, L.C.A., CIDRAL, T.A., MELO, M.C.N.D., PORTO, W.J.N. and MOTTA NETO, R., 2019. Ocorrência de Staphylococcus spp. resistente à meticilina em otite externa canina. Revista Brasileira de Análises Clínicas, vol. 51, no. 4, pp. 342-347. https://doi.org/10.21877/2448-3877.201900891
  » https://doi.org/10.21877/2448-3877.201900891
• CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION – CDC, 2002. Staphylococcus aureus resistant to vancomycin: united States, 2002. Infectious Diseases in Clinical Practice, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 163. https://doi.org/10.1097/00019048-200203000-00016
  » https://doi.org/10.1097/00019048-200203000-00016
• CLARK, N.C., COOKSEY, R.C., HILL, B.C., SWENSON, J.M. and TENOVER, F.C., 1993. Characterization of glycopeptide-resistant enterococci from U.S. hospitals. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, vol. 37, no. 11, pp. 2311-2317. https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.37.11.2311 PMid:8285611.
  » https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.37.11.2311
• CLINICAL AND LABORATORY STANDARDS INSTITUTE – CLSI, 2021. Performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing. CLSI supplement M100, 31th ed. Wayne, PA: Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute, 332 p.
• COSTA, S.S., RIBEIRO, R., SERRANO, M., OLIVEIRA, K., FERREIRA, C., LEAL, M., POMBA, C. and COUTO, I., 2022. Staphylococcus aureus causing skin and soft tissue infections in companion animals: antimicrobial resistance profiles and clonal lineages. Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland), vol. 11, no. 5, pp. 599. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics11050599 PMid:35625243.
  » https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics11050599
• COUTO, N., MONCHIQUE, C., BELAS, A., MARQUES, C., GAMA, L.T. and POMBA, C., 2016. Trends and molecular mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance in clinical staphylococci isolated from companion animals over a 16 year period. The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, vol. 71, no. 6, pp. 1479-1487. https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkw029 PMid:26944924.
  » https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkw029
• DAS, S., KABIR, A., CHOUHAN, C.S., SHAHID, M.A.H., HABIB, T., KOBIR, M.A., HOSSAIN, M.Z., RAHMAN, M. and NAZIR, K.H.M.N.H., 2023. Antimicrobial resistance patterns of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from apparently healthy pet cats of Bangladesh. Journal of Advanced Veterinary and Animal Research, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 545-553. https://doi.org/10.5455/javar.2023.j708 PMid:37969791.
  » https://doi.org/10.5455/javar.2023.j708
• DELGADO‑BAQUERIZO, M., HU, H.W., MAESTRE, F.T., GUERRA, C.A., EISENHAUER, N., ELDRIDGE, D.J., ZHU, Y.G., CHEN, Q.L., TRIVEDI, P., DU, S. and HE, J.Z., 2022. The global distribution and environmental drivers of the soil antibiotic resistome. Microbiome, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 219. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40168-022-01405-w PMid:36503688.
  » https://doi.org/10.1186/s40168-022-01405-w
• DI CERBO, A., PEZZUTO, F., GUIDETTI, G., CANELLO, S. and CORSI, L., 2019. Tetracyclines: insights and updates of their use in human and animal pathology and their potential toxicity. The Open Biochemistry Journal, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 1-12. https://doi.org/10.2174/1874091X01913010001
  » https://doi.org/10.2174/1874091X01913010001
• DUTKA-MALEN, S., EVERS, S. and COURVALIN, P., 1995. Detection of glycopeptide resistance genotypes and identification to the species level of clinically relevant enterococci by PCR. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 24-27. https://doi.org/10.1128/jcm.33.1.24-27.1995 PMid:7699051.
  » https://doi.org/10.1128/jcm.33.1.24-27.1995
• EUROPEAN FOOD SAFETY AUTHORITY – EFSA and EUROPEAN CENTRE FOR DISEASE PREVENTION AND CONTROL – ECDC, 2023. The European Union Summary Report on Antimicrobial Resistance in zoonotic and indicator bacteria from humans, animals and food in 2020/2021. EFSA Journal, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. e07867.
• FERNANDES, S.P., DE ALMEIDA, L.L.C., DE ANDRADE, A.S.A., ABREU, L.S., NASCIMENTO, Y.M., DE SOUZA, T.A., DA SILVA, E.F., VOLPATO, F.C.Z., BARTH, A.L., TAVARES, J.F., DE ARAÚJO, D.A.M., RODRIGUES-JUNIOR, V.D.S. and CIBULSKI, S.P., 2025. The Brazilian Caatinga biome as a hotspot for the isolation of antibiotic-producing Actinomycetota. Life (Basel, Switzerland), vol. 15, no. 10, pp. 1494. https://doi.org/10.3390/life15101494 PMid:41157166.
  » https://doi.org/10.3390/life15101494
• FIŠAROVÁ, L., PANTŮČEK, R., BOTKA, T. and DOŠKAŘ, J., 2019. Variability of resistance plasmids in coagulase-negative staphylococci and their importance as a reservoir of antimicrobial resistance. Research in Microbiology, vol. 170, no. 2, pp. 105-111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resmic.2018.11.004 PMid:30503569.
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resmic.2018.11.004
• GARDETE, S. and TOMASZ, A., 2014. Mechanisms of vancomycin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. The Journal of Clinical Investigation, vol. 124, no. 7, pp. 2836-2840. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI68834 PMid:24983424.
  » https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI68834
• GLAJZNER, P., SZEWCZYK, E.M. and SZEMRAJ, M., 2023. Pathogenic potential and antimicrobial resistance of Staphylococcus pseudintermedius isolated from human and animals. Folia Microbiologica, vol. 68, no. 2, pp. 231-243. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12223-022-01007-x PMid:36221001.
  » https://doi.org/10.1007/s12223-022-01007-x
• GONZÁLEZ ROMÁN, A.C., DIB, A.L., GONZÁLEZ DOMENECH, C.M., GARCÍA VALDÉS, L.M., LÓPEZ GUARNIDO, O. and ESPIGARES RODRÍGUEZ, E., 2025. A phenotypic study of the resistome in a peri-urban ecosystem. Environmental Research, vol. 264, no. 2, pp. 120388. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2024.120388
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2024.120388
• HAVERI, M., SUOMINEN, S., RANTALA, L., HONKANEN-BUZALSKI, T. and PYÖRÄLÄ, S., 2005. Comparison of phenotypic and genotypic detection of penicillin G resistance of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from bovine intramammary infection. Veterinary Microbiology, vol. 106, no. 1-2, pp. 97-102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2004.12.015 PMid:15737478.
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2004.12.015
• JIN, M., OSMAN, M., GREEN, B.A., YANG, Y., AHUJA, A., LU, Z. and CAZER, C.L., 2023. Evidence for the transmission of antimicrobial resistant bacteria between humans and companion animals: A scoping review. One Health, vol. 17, pp. 100593. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.onehlt.2023.100593 PMid:37448771.
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.onehlt.2023.100593
• KOWALEWICZ, C., TIMMERMANS, M., FRETIN, D., WATTIAU, P. and BOLAND, C., 2023. An in‐house 45‐plex array for the detection of antimicrobial resistance genes in Gram‐positive bacteria. MicrobiologyOpen, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. e1341. https://doi.org/10.1002/mbo3.1341 PMid:36825880.
  » https://doi.org/10.1002/mbo3.1341
• KREWER, C.C., AMANSO, E.S., GOUVEIA, G.V., SOUZA, R.L., COSTA, M.M. and MOTA, R.A., 2015. Resistance to antimicrobials and biofilm formation in Staphylococcus spp. isolated from bovine mastitis in the Northeast of Brazil. Tropical Animal Health and Production, vol. 47, no. 3, pp. 511-518. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-014-0752-9 PMid:25547807.
  » https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-014-0752-9
• LACERDA JÚNIOR, G.V., NORONHA, M.F., SOUSA, S.T.P., CABRAL, L., DOMINGOS, D.F., SÁBER, M.L., MELO, I.S. and OLIVEIRA, V.M., 2017. Potential of semiarid soil from Caatinga biome as a novel source for mining lignocellulose-degrading enzymes. FEMS Microbiology Ecology, vol. 93, no. 2, pp. fiw248. https://doi.org/10.1093/femsec/fiw248 PMid:27986827.
  » https://doi.org/10.1093/femsec/fiw248
• LARSEN, J., RAISEN, C.L., BA, X., SADGROVE, N.J., PADILLA-GONZÁLEZ, G.F., SIMMONDS, M.S.J., LONCARIC, I., KERSCHNER, H., APFALTER, P., HARTL, R., DEPLANO, A., VANDENDRIESSCHE, S., BOLFÍKOVÁ, B.C., HULVA, P., ARENDRUP, M.C., HARE, R.K., BARNADAS, C., STEGGER, M., SIEBER, R.N., SKOV, R.L., PETERSEN, A., ANGEN, Ø., RASMUSSEN, S.L., ESPINOSA-GONGORA, C., AARESTRUP, F.M., LINDHOLM, L.J., NYKÄSENOJA, S.M., LAURENT, F., BECKER, K., WALTHER, B., KEHRENBERG, C., CUNY, C., LAYER, F., WERNER, G., WITTE, W., STAMM, I., MORONI, P., JØRGENSEN, H.J., LENCASTRE, H., CERCENADO, E., GARCÍA-GARROTE, F., BÖRJESSON, S., HÆGGMAN, S., PERRETEN, V., TEALE, C.J., WALLER, A.S., PICHON, B., CURRAN, M.D., ELLINGTON, M.J., WELCH, J.J., PEACOCK, S.J., SEILLY, D.J., MORGAN, F.J.E., PARKHILL, J., HADJIRIN, N.F., LINDSAY, J.A., HOLDEN, M.T.G., EDWARDS, G.F., FOSTER, G., PATERSON, G.K., DIDELOT, X., HOLMES, M.A., HARRISON, E.M. and LARSEN, A.R., 2022. Emergence of methicillin resistance predates the clinical use of antibiotics. Nature, vol. 602, no. 7895, pp. 135-141. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-04265-w PMid:34987223.
  » https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-04265-w
• LAWPIDET, P., TENGJAROENKUL, B., SAKSANGAWONG, C. and SUKON, P., 2021. Global prevalence of vancomycin-resistant enterococci in food of animal origin: a meta-analysis. Foodborne Pathogens and Disease, vol. 18, no. 6, pp. 405-412. https://doi.org/10.1089/fpd.2020.2892 PMid:33684315.
  » https://doi.org/10.1089/fpd.2020.2892
• LEITE, D.P.S.B.M., BARBOSA, I.C., SILVA, R.A., FERNANDES, P.R., ABAD, A.C.A., SILVA, J.G., MOTA, R.A. and PORTO, T.S., 2023. Occurrence of antimicrobial-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a Brazilian veterinary hospital environment. Brazilian Journal of Microbiology : Publication of the Brazilian Society for Microbiology, vol. 54, no. 3, pp. 2393-2401. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42770-023-01035-w PMid:37407882.
  » https://doi.org/10.1007/s42770-023-01035-w
• LYNCH, S.A. and HELBIG, K.J., 2021. The complex diseases of Staphylococcus pseudintermedius in canines: where to next? Veterinary Sciences, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 11. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci8010011 PMid:33477504.
  » https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci8010011
• MA, G.C., WORTHING, K.A., WARD, M.P. and NORRIS, J.M., 2020. Commensal staphylococci including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus from dogs and cats in remote New South Wales, Australia. Microbial Ecology, vol. 79, no. 1, pp. 164-174. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00248-019-01382-y PMid:31049616.
  » https://doi.org/10.1007/s00248-019-01382-y
• MADHAIYAN, M., WIRTH, J.S. and SARAVANAN, V.S., 2020. Phylogenomic analyses of the Staphylococcaceae family suggest the reclassification of five species within the genus Staphylococcus as heterotypic synonyms, the promotion of five subspecies to novel species, the taxonomic reassignment of five Staphylococcus species to Mammaliicoccus gen. nov., and the formal assignment of Nosocomiicoccus to the family Staphylococcaceae. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology, vol. 70, no. 11, pp. 5926-5936. https://doi.org/10.1099/ijsem.0.004498 PMid:33052802.
  » https://doi.org/10.1099/ijsem.0.004498
• MARCO-FUERTES, A., MARIN, C., GIMENO-CARDONA, C., ARTAL-MUÑOZ, V., VEGA, S. and MONTORO-DASI, L., 2024. Multidrug-resistant commensal and infection-causing Staphylococcus spp. isolated from companion animals in the Valencia region. Veterinary Sciences, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 54. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci11020054 PMid:38393072.
  » https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci11020054
• MEHROTRA, M., WANG, G. and JOHNSON, W.M., 2000. Multiplex PCR for detection of genes for Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxins, exfoliative toxins, toxic shock syndrome toxin 1, and methicillin resistance. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, vol. 38, no. 3, pp. 1032-1035. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.38.3.1032-1035.2000 PMid:10698991.
  » https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.38.3.1032-1035.2000
• MOREIRA, J.M.A.R., MENEZES, I.G., LUNA, I.S.R., NOGUEIRA, B.S., SOUSA, A.T.H.I., CÂNDIDO, S.L., DUTRA, V. and NAKAZATO, L., 2020. Vancomycin susceptibility profiles of Staphylococcus spp. isolates from domestic and wild animals. Ciência Rural, vol. 50, no. 7, pp. e20190713. https://doi.org/10.1590/0103-8478cr20190713
  » https://doi.org/10.1590/0103-8478cr20190713
• MORRIS, D.O., LOEFFLER, A., DAVIS, M.F., GUARDABASSI, L. and WEESE, J.S., 2017. Recommendations for approaches to meticillin-resistant staphylococcal infections of small animals: diagnosis, therapeutic considerations and preventative measures. Veterinary Dermatology, vol. 28, no. 3, pp. 304-e69. https://doi.org/10.1111/vde.12444 PMid:28516494.
  » https://doi.org/10.1111/vde.12444
• MOSES, I.B., SANTOS, F.F. and GALES, A.C., 2023. Human colonization and infection by Staphylococcus pseudintermedius: an emerging and underestimated zoonotic pathogen. Microorganisms, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 581. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11030581 PMid:36985155.
  » https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms11030581
• NAING, S.Y., DUIM, B., BROENS, E.M., SCHWEITZER, V., ZOMER, A., VAN DER GRAAF-VAN BLOOIS, L., VAN DER MEER, C., STELLINGWERFF, L., FLUIT, A.C. and WAGENAAR, J.A., 2023. Molecular characterization and clinical relevance of taxonomic reassignment of Staphylococcus schleiferi Subspecies into two separate species, Staphylococcus schleiferi and Staphylococcus coagulans. Microbiology Spectrum, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. e0467022. https://doi.org/10.1128/spectrum.04670-22 PMid:36853031.
  » https://doi.org/10.1128/spectrum.04670-22
• NG, L.K., MARTIN, I., ALFA, M. and MULVEY, M., 2001. Multiplex PCR for the detection of tetracycline resistant genes. Molecular and Cellular Probes, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 209-215. https://doi.org/10.1006/mcpr.2001.0363 PMid:11513555.
  » https://doi.org/10.1006/mcpr.2001.0363
• OLANIYI, R., POZZI, C., GRIMALDI, L. and BAGNOLI, F., 2017. Staphylococcus aureus-associated skin and soft tissue infections: anatomical localization, epidemiology, therapy and potential prophylaxis. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology, vol. 409, pp. 199-227. https://doi.org/10.1007/82_2016_32 PMid:27744506.
  » https://doi.org/10.1007/82_2016_32
• PATERSON, G.K., LARSEN, A.R., ROBB, A., EDWARDS, G.E., PENNYCOTT, T.W., FOSTER, G., MOT, D., HERMANS, K., BAERT, K., PEACOCK, S.J., PARKHILL, J., ZADOKS, R.R. and HOLMES, M.A., 2012. The newly described mecA homologue, mecALGA251, is present in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates from a diverse range of host species. The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, vol. 67, no. 12, pp. 2809-2813. https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dks329 PMid:22941897.
  » https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dks329
• PEDROSO, S.H.S.P., SANDES, S.H.C., FILHO, R.A.T., NUNES, A.C., SERUFO, J.C., FARIAS, L.M., CARVALHO, M.A.R., BOMFIM, M.R.Q. and SANTOS, S.G., 2018. Coagulase-negative staphylococci isolated from human bloodstream infections showed multidrug resistance profile. Microbial Drug Resistance : MDR : Mechanisms, Epidemiology, and Disease, vol. 24, no. 5, pp. 635-647. https://doi.org/10.1089/mdr.2017.0309 PMid:29683776.
  » https://doi.org/10.1089/mdr.2017.0309
• POMBA, C., RANTALA, M., GREKO, C., BAPTISTE, K.E., CATRY, B., VAN DUIJKEREN, E., MATEUS, A., MORENO, M.A., PYÖRÄLÄ, S., RUŽAUSKAS, M., SANDERS, P., TEALE, C., THRELFALL, E.J., KUNSAGI, Z., TORREN-EDO, J., JUKES, H. and TÖRNEKE, K., 2017. Public health risk of antimicrobial resistance transfer from companion animals. The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, vol. 72, no. 4, pp. 957-968. https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkw481 PMid:27999066.
  » https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkw481
• PRESTINACI, F., PEZZOTTI, P. and PANTOSTI, A., 2015. Antimicrobial resistance: a global multifaceted phenomenon. Pathogens and Global Health, vol. 109, no. 7, pp. 309-318. https://doi.org/10.1179/2047773215Y.0000000030 PMid:26343252.
  » https://doi.org/10.1179/2047773215Y.0000000030
• RANA, E.A., ISLAM, M.Z., DAS, T., DUTTA, A., AHAD, A., BISWAS, P.K. and BARUA, H., 2022. Prevalence of coagulase‐positive methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus pseudintermedius in dogs in Bangladesh. Veterinary Medicine and Science, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 498-508. https://doi.org/10.1002/vms3.701 PMid:34941011.
  » https://doi.org/10.1002/vms3.701
• ROSEC, J.P. and GIGAUD, O., 2002. Staphylococcal enterotoxin genes of classical and new types detected by PCR in France. International Journal of Food Microbiology, vol. 77, no. 1-2, pp. 61-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1605(02)00044-2 PMid:12076039.
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1605(02)00044-2
• ROSSI, C.C., SOUZA-SILVA, T., ARAÚJO-ALVES, A.V. and GIAMBIAGI-DEMARVAL, M., 2017. CRISPR-Cas systems features and the gene-reservoir role of coagulase-negative staphylococci. Frontiers in Microbiology, vol. 8, pp. 1545. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2017.01545 PMid:28861060.
  » https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2017.01545
• SFACIOTTE, R.A.P., PARUSSOLO, L., MELO, F.D., POMPELLI, L.H., ISRAEL, N.D., SCHWARZ, D.G.G., COSTA, U.M. and FERRAZ, S.M., 2025. Prevalence, identification and antimicrobial sensitivity profile of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus colonizing dogs, cats and humans in a veterinary hospital, Brazil. Research in Veterinary Science, vol. 193, pp. 105793. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2025.105793 PMid:40652701.
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2025.105793
• SILVA, L., LOPES, T.S., BRAMBATTI, G., MOYSES, A.B., RIBAS, L.M., KIPPER, D., STRECK, A.F. and LUNGE, V.R., 2025. Diversity and antimicrobial resistance of Staphylococci Isolated from healthy dogs and cats in southern Brazil. Microbiology Research, vol. 16, no. 11, pp. 231. https://doi.org/10.3390/microbiolres16110231
  » https://doi.org/10.3390/microbiolres16110231
• SIPS, G.J., VAN DIJK, M.A.M., VAN WESTREENEN, M., VAN DER GRAAF-VAN BLOOIS, L., DUIM, B. and BROENS, E.M., 2023. Evidence of cat-to-human transmission of Staphylococcus felis. Journal of Medical Microbiology, vol. 72, no. 2, pp. 001661. https://doi.org/10.1099/jmm.0.001661 PMid:36763079.
  » https://doi.org/10.1099/jmm.0.001661
• SMALL, C., BEATTY, N. and EL HELOU, G., 2021. Staphylococcus pseudintermedius bacteremia in a lung transplant recipient exposed to domestic pets. Cureus, vol. 13, no. 5, pp. e14895. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.14895 PMid:34109083.
  » https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.14895
• SOUTO SOBRINHO, J.D., DE VALENÇA SILVA, A.K., DE MEDEIROS, K.B., SILVA, M.L.C.R., DE MEDEIROS, A.B.M., DE SOUSA, D.L.C., DE AZEVEDO, S.S. and DE SOUSA AMÉRICO BATISTA SANTOS, C., 2024. Antimicrobial resistance, enterotoxin and biofilm production genes in Staphylococcus spp. isolated from facilities and fomites in veterinary hospital in the Caatinga biome. Brazilian Journal of Microbiology : Publication of the Brazilian Society for Microbiology, vol. 55, no. 3, pp. 2885-2892. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42770-024-01400-3
  » https://doi.org/10.1007/s42770-024-01400-3
• TAKEUCHI, H., MORIZANE, K., TAKEI, D., OTSUKA, K. and YASUDA, T., 2023. Rare case of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus intermedius tenosynovitis caused by pet bite: a case report. JOS Case Reports, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 108-111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joscr.2023.06.006
  » https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joscr.2023.06.006
• TANG, K.W.K., MILLAR, B.C. and MOORE, J.E., 2023. Antimicrobial resistance (AMR). British Journal of Biomedical Science, vol. 80, pp. 11387. https://doi.org/10.3389/bjbs.2023.11387 PMid:37448857.
  » https://doi.org/10.3389/bjbs.2023.11387
• THOMSON, P., GARCÍA, P., MILES, J., ISLA, D., YÁÑEZ, C., SANTIBÁÑEZ, R., NÚÑEZ, A., FLORES-YÁÑEZ, C., DEL RÍO, C. and CUADRA, F., 2022. Isolation and identification of Staphylococcus species obtained from healthy companion animals and humans. Veterinary Sciences, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 79. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci9020079 PMid:35202332.
  » https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci9020079
• VIÑES, J., FÀBREGAS, N., PÉREZ, D., CUSCÓ, A., FONTICOBA, R., FRANCINO, O., FERRER, L. and MIGURA-GARCIA, L., 2022. Concordance between antimicrobial resistance phenotype and genotype of Staphylococcus pseudintermedius from healthy dogs. Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland), vol. 11, no. 11, pp. 1625. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics11111625 PMid:36421269.
  » https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics11111625
• WIJESEKARA, P.N.K., KUMBUKGOLLA, W.W., JAYAWEERA, J.A.A.S. and RAWAT, D., 2017. Review on usage of vancomycin in livestock and humans: maintaining its efficacy, prevention of resistance and alternative therapy. Veterinary Sciences, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 6. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci4010006 PMid:29056665.
  » https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci4010006
• WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION – WHO, 2020a [viewed 10 February 2026]. Clinical management of COVID-19: interim guidance [online]. Available from: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/332196
  » https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/332196
• WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION – WHO, 2020b [viewed 10 February 2026]. 2019 antibacterial agents in clinical development: an analysis of the antibacterial clinical development pipeline [online]. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240000193
  » https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240000193
• YARBROUGH, M.L., HAMAD, Y., BURNHAM, C.A. and GEORGE, I.A., 2017. The brief case: bacteremia and vertebral osteomyelitis due to Staphylococcus schleiferi. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, vol. 55, no. 11, pp. 3157-3161. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.00500-17 PMid:29066564.
  » https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.00500-17

Edited by

• Editor:
  Takako Matsumura Tundisi

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  21 Aug 2026
• Date of issue
  2026

History

• Received
  04 Apr 2026
• Accepted
  03 July 2026