Preserving Mauritia flexuosa L.f. (Arecaceae) ecosystems during Guyana’s first oil boom

In recent years, Guyana has made one of the world’s most significant oil discoveries, boosting its economy fourfold. Globally, economic development has contributed to increased levels of greenhouse gases, and like most developing countries, Guyana may be at risk of prioritizing monetary gain over development that is environmentally sustainable. Mauritia flexuosa L.f. (Arecaceae) is one the most common palm species that grows in extensive stands (cananguchal and morichal ecological systems) throughout tropical South American peatlands (as well as Trinidad), and may be capable of reducing the impacts of greenhouse gases (GHGs) at the regional level. Mauritia flexuosa ecological systems do this by storing carbon (the most abundant GHG) belowground within their waterlogged environs, in the form of peat deposits. Atmospheric carbon is absorbed by M. flexuosa palms and plants growing at the surface, via photosynthetic carbon assimilation, and then accumulates in the substrate as a result of the waterlogged conditions preventing aerobic decomposition and thus the consequent release of the organic carbon held in dead plant matter. Ecological managers and policy-makers should, therefore, be made aware of the importance of these ecosystems in the global carbon balance and climate change mitigation.

Forest vegetation covers over three-quarters of the land area of the Guianas (Raghoenandan, 2000) and constitutes one of the few remaining tracts of tropical primary rainforest left on the planet (Mittermeier et al., 1998). Flooded forests (1.12%); swamp forests—open canopy with palms (0.03%); flooded savannas (1.81%); and open savannas (1.97%) cover approximately 5% of the total land area of South America (17,778 300 km²) (Eva et al., 2004), and are known to be very efficient ecosystems, due to their capability of mitigating global warming through absorbing carbon dioxide and nitrous oxides from the atmosphere and storing them in belowground biomass (Bhomia et al., 2019; Draper et al., 2014, 2018). Mauritia flexuosa ecosystems in the Guianas account for over 2.5% of its total area (approximately 450,000 km²) (Ruokolainen et al., 2001) and can sequester large volumes of atmospheric carbon (Hergoualc’h et al., 2017; Trumper, 2009). Additionally, ecosystems that contain M. flexuosa in Guyana (i.e., palm marsh woodlands, flooded riparian forests, herbaceous swamps, and lowland savannas) have been identified as effective carbon sinks (Butt et al., 2015; Huber et al., 1995; ter Steege, 2001).

The first step in preserving Guyana’s peatland and carbon stores is to recognize their international conservation importance (Page et al., 2011), both in the highlands (Zinck and Huber, 2011) and in the lowlands (Huber et al., 1995; Delprete, 2003). By acknowledging the Guianas' contribution towards mitigating against climate change (i.e., through forest conservation), these countries can be encouraged/motivated to conserve existing peatlands from commercial agriculture and commercial development (Roucoux et al., 2017; Ruokolainen et al., 2001). According to the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), presently in Guyana, some expected impacts from climate change (as a result of anticipated agricultural activities, coastal developments and human settlements) involve an increase in sea-surface temperature and a reduction of freshwater resources (ECLAC, 2011). However, with the discovery of over 10 billion barrels of oil equivalent (Myers, 2018) and 32 trillion cubic feet of natural gas reserves (Krane, 2020), carbon dioxide emissions (generated from the extraction and burning of fossil fuels by Guyana industrial sectors) are expected to get close to 850 million tonnes from oil and 1.7 billion tonnes from natural gas reserves (Elias-Roberts, 2020; Kaieteur News, 2020), further threatening the global climate system. It is therefore critical for the government of Guyana to ensure that environmental laws are updated according to their vision 2040–Green State Development Strategy (GSDS), following the objectives of the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (Elias-Roberts, 2020). Furthermore, the government should aim to understand the importance of M. flexuosa ecosystems as an effective way of mitigating GHG emissions through the conservation of M. flexuosa landscapes (Bhomia et al., 2019; Elias-Roberts, 2020; Kallweit, 2020; Lawson et al., 2015; van der Hoek et al., 2019; Virapongse et al., 2017).

Towards the aim of conserving M. flexuosa ecosystems, governments of the Guianas’ are encouraged to use UAV-based (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) RGB (Red, Green and Blue) orthomosaic imagery as a tool for identifying and quantifying the stands of these palms. With this tool, total areas of potential peatland and carbon stores within the Guianas can be mapped and quantified (Hergoualc’h et al., 2017; Lawson et al., 2015; Tagle Casapia et al., 2020), and can also provide evidence for the enforcement of environmental laws aiming to protect biological diversity and conserve these ecosystems against the threat of onshore petroleum projects (Elias-Roberts, 2020).

Mauritia flexuosa is a hyperkeystone species that plays an essential role within the range of ecosystems named above. At a regional scale, M. flexuosa-dominated peatlands (Ité palm marshes—Guyana; palmier bâche marais—French Guiana; maurisie zwampbos—Suriname; buritizal—Brazil; cananguchal—Colombia; Aguajals—Peru; moretals—Ecuador; palma real swamps—Bolivia; morichales—Venezuela and Trinidad) have high ecological value to wildlife, as they provide multiple types of resources (food, nest sites, habitat) for over 900 vertebrate species; 28 of which are threatened species (van der Hoek et al., 2019). At the local scale, M. flexuosa palms are referred to as the ‘tree of life’ by many indigenous communities as they provide a wide range of products (e.g. juices, candies, flour, edible larvae [Otocumba], hammocks, chairs, thatch [tibisiri], clothes, canoes, bridges, planks, jewellery, cosmetics, warishis [back-packs], carpets, baskets, toys, medicine and ceremonial objects), and services (e.g. windbreaks, hunting grounds, recreation and religious activities) for many villages (Arneaud, 2018; Arneaud et al., 2017; Martins et al., 2012). Still, very little is known about the ecology, livelihood value, and management of M. flexuosa palms in the Guianas (Virapongse et al., 2017); especially, within the permanent wetland regions of Guyana.

Mauritia flexuosa ecosystems also support marine primary productivity. The Caribbean Province (during the summer) is responsible for sequestering some of the highest levels of carbon dioxide from the Atlantic Ocean, over 40 gigatonnes of carbon per year (Gt C yr⁻¹) (Kulk et al., 2020). Some of these productive marine provinces are supplied with nutrient-rich waters originating from M. flexuosa ecosystems (Echezuría et al., 2002; Klotz et al., 2020; Kulk et al., 2020). It is therefore critical to understand the role of M. flexuosa ecosystems in mitigating global carbon emissions, and the interrelationship between landscape and seascape carbon sinks.

With so many potential negative impacts of global climate change, the government of Guyana needs to ensure that environmental protection laws preserve M. flexuosa peatland ecosystems and their associated carbon stores. Ecological managers and policy-makers should, therefore, use evidence-based research findings to identify and fill gaps in knowledge and environmental policies (similar to Hernández-Valencia et al., 2018). This can be achieved by improving ecological impact assessments and finalizing strategic planning principles (i.e., based on government legislations which mandate the country’s growth and development towards a greener economy) to ensure that ongoing economic development/activities resulting from the oil boom are performed in an environmentally sustainable way.

References

• ARNEAUD, L.L., 2018 [viewed 12 May 2020]. Sustainability measures needed to preserve ‘tree of life’ [online]. Kaieteur News, 22 jan. Available from: www.kaieteurnewsonline.com/2018/01/22/sustainability-measures-needed-to-preserve-tree-of-life-researcher/
• ARNEAUD, L.L., FARRELL, A.D. and OATHAM, M.P., 2017 [viewed 12 May 2020]. Marked reproductive plasticity in response to contrasting fire regimes in a neotropical palm. Tropical Ecology [online], vol. 58, no. 4, pp. 693-703. Available from: http://tropecol.com/pdf/open/PDF_58_4/2%20Arneaud,%20Farrell%20and%20Oatham.pdf
  » http://tropecol.com/pdf/open/PDF_58_4/2%20Arneaud,%20Farrell%20and%20Oatham.pdf
• BHOMIA, R.K., VAN LENT, J., RIOS, J.M.G., HERGOUALC’H, K., CORONADO, E.N.H. and MURDIYARSO, D., 2019. Impacts of Mauritia flexuosa degradation on the carbon stocks of freshwater peatlands in the Pastaza-Marañón river basin of the Peruvian Amazon. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, vol. 24, no. 4, pp. 645-668. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11027-018-9809-9
  » http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11027-018-9809-9
• BUTT, N., EPPS, K., OVERMAN, H., IWAMURA, T. and FRAGOSO, J.M., 2015. Assessing carbon stocks using indigenous peoples’ field measurements in Amazonian Guyana. Forest Ecology and Management, vol. 338, pp. 191-199. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2014.11.014
  » http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2014.11.014
• DELPRETE, P.G., 2003. Flora of the Guianas. In: Proceedings of the The Importance of the Herbarium in Plant Sciences, 2003, Cayenne, France. Cayenne: Franceherbier de Guyane, Institut de Recherche Pour le Développement. Newsletter, no. 14, Special Workshop Issue.
• DRAPER, F.C., CORONADO, E.N.H., ROUCOUX, K.H., LAWSON, I.T., MITCHARD, E.T.A., LÄHTEENOJA, O., MONTENEGRO, L.T., SANDOVAL, E.V., ZARÁTE, R. and BAKER, T.R., 2014. The distribution and amount of carbon in the largest peatland complex in Amazonia. Environmental Research Letters, vol. 9, no. 12, pp. 124017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/9/12/124017
  » http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/9/12/124017
• DRAPER, F.C., HONORIO CORONADO, E.N., ROUCOUX, K.H., LAWSON, I.T., A. PITMAN, N.C., A. FINE, P.V., PHILLIPS, O.L., TORRES MONTENEGRO, L.A., VALDERRAMA SANDOVAL, E., MESONES, I., GARCÍA-VILLACORTA, R., ARÉVALO, F.R.R. and BAKER, T.R., 2018. Peatland forests are the least diverse tree communities documented in Amazonia, but contribute to high regional beta‐diversity. Ecography, vol. 41, no. 8, pp. 1256-1269. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ecog.03126
  » http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ecog.03126
• ECHEZURÍA, H., CÓRDOVA, J., GONZÁLEZ, M., GONZÁLEZ, V., MÉNDEZ, J. and YANES, C., 2002. Assessment of environmental changes in the Orinoco River delta. Regional Environmental Change, vol. 3, no. 1-3, pp. 20-35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10113-001-0038-4
  » http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10113-001-0038-4
• ECONOMIC COMMISSION FOR LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN – ECLAC. 2011. An economic impact assessment of climate change in Guyana: agriculture, coastal and human settlements and health sectors. Newsletter of the Cooperation and Development Committee (CDCC), no. 4, pp. 1-5.
• ELIAS-ROBERTS, A., 2020. Balancing environmental protection and offshore petroleum developments in Guyana. Global Energy Law and Sustainability, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 1-27. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/gels.2020.0004
  » http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/gels.2020.0004
• EVA, H.D., BELWARD, A.S., DE MIRANDA, E.E., DI BELLA, C.M., GOND, V., HUBER, O., JONES, S., SGRENZAROLI, M. and FRITZ, S., 2004. A land cover map of South America. Global Change Biology, vol. 10, no. 5, pp. 731-744. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1529-8817.2003.00774.x
  » http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1529-8817.2003.00774.x
• HERGOUALC’H, K., GUTIÉRREZ-VÉLEZ, V.H., MENTON, M. and VERCHOT, L.V., 2017. Characterizing degradation of palm swamp peatlands from space and on the ground: an exploratory study in the Peruvian Amazon. Forest Ecology and Management, vol. 393, pp. 63-73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2017.03.016
  » http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2017.03.016
• HERNÁNDEZ-VALENCIA, I., GONZÁLEZ-BOSCÁN, V., ZAMORA-LEDEZMA, E. and CARRILLO-CARRILLO, V. 2018. Environmental impacts of the oil industry on the Mauritia flexuosa swamp palm groves (Morichales) in Venezuela. In: E. POTTER and A. VEGA, eds. Oil contaminations: impacts and offsets New York: Nova Science Publisher, pp. 33-72.
• HUBER, O., GHARBARRAN, G. and FUNK, V., 1995. Vegetation map of Guyana (preliminary version). Guyana: Centre for the Study of Biological Diversity, University of Guyana.
• KAIETEUR NEWS, 2020 [viewed on 10 May 2020]. Guyana’s oil will make it one of the biggest greenhouse gas emitters of all time – German NGO [online]. Kaieteur News, 24 apr. Available from: https://www.kaieteurnewsonline.com/2020/04/24/guyanas-oil-will-make-it-one-of-the-biggest-greenhouse-gas-emitters-of-all-time-german-ngo/
  » https://www.kaieteurnewsonline.com/2020/04/24/guyanas-oil-will-make-it-one-of-the-biggest-greenhouse-gas-emitters-of-all-time-german-ngo/
• KALLWEIT, T., 2020 [viewed on 10 May 2020]. Mauritia flexuosa as an opportunity to curb tropical peat swamp forest degradation? [online]. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338774737_Mauritia_flexuosa_as_an_Opportunity_to_Curb_Tropical_Peat_Swamp_Forest_Degradation
  » https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338774737_Mauritia_flexuosa_as_an_Opportunity_to_Curb_Tropical_Peat_Swamp_Forest_Degradation
• KLOTZ, V., SUBRAMANIAM, A., MONTOYA, J., THOMAS, C.S., STROPE, E.K. and RAMCHARITAR, B., 2020 [viewed on 10 May 2020]. Nutrient addition effects on phytoplankton communities in the Amazon River Plume [online]. NASA Technical Reports Server. Available from: https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=20200001252
  » https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=20200001252
• KRANE, J., 2020 [viewed on 10 May 2020]. The geopolitics of FDI: can weak states deter hegemons using foreign investment? [online]. Center for Energy Studies. Working Paper in The Role of Foreign Direct Investment in Resource-Rich Regions. Available from: https://www.bakerinstitute.org/media/files/files/ce3b2e6f/fdi-krane-fdi-deterrent-to-hegemons.pdf
  » https://www.bakerinstitute.org/media/files/files/ce3b2e6f/fdi-krane-fdi-deterrent-to-hegemons.pdf
• KULK, G., PLATT, T., DINGLE, J., JACKSON, T., JÖNSSON, B.F., BOUMAN, H.A., BABIN, M., BREWIN, R.J., DOBLIN, M., ESTRADA, M., FIGUEIRAS, F.G., FURUYA, K., GONZÁLEZ-BENÍTEZ, N., GUDFINNSSON, H.G., GUDMUNDSSON, K., HUANG, B., ISADA, T., KOVAČ, Ž., LUTZ, V.A., MARAÑÓN, E., RAMAN, M., RICHARDSON, K., ROZEMA, P.D., POLL, W.H., SEGURA, V., TILSTONE, G.H., UITZ, J., DONGEN-VOGELS, V., YOSHIKAWA, T. and SATHYENDRANATH, S., 2020. Primary production, an Index of climate change in the ocean: satellite-based estimates over two decades. Remote Sensing, vol. 12, no. 5, pp. 826. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs12050826
  » http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs12050826
• LAWSON, I.T., KELLY, T., APLIN, P., BOOM, A., DARGIE, G., DRAPER, F., HASSAN, P., HOYOS-SANTILLAN, J., KADUK, J., LARGE, D., MURPHY, W., PAGE, S.E., ROUCOUX, K.H., SJÖGERSTEN, S., TANSEY, K., WALDRAM, M., WEDEUX, B.M.M. and WHEELER, J., 2015. Improving estimates of tropical peatland area, carbon storage, and greenhouse gas fluxes. Wetlands Ecology and Management, vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 327-346. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11273-014-9402-2
  » http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11273-014-9402-2
• MARTINS, R.C., FILGUEIRAS, T.S. and ALBUQUERQUE, U.P., 2012. Ethnobotany of Mauritia flexuosa (Arecaceae) in a maroon community in central Brazil. Economic Botany, vol. 66, no. 1, pp. 91-98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12231-011-9182-z
  » http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12231-011-9182-z
• MITTERMEIER, R.A., MYERS, N., THOMSEN, J.B., DA FONSECA, G.A. and OLIVIERI, S., 1998. Biodiversity hotspots and major tropical wilderness areas: approaches to setting conservation priorities. Conservation Biology, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 516-520. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1998.012003516.x
  » http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1998.012003516.x
• MYERS, K. 2018 [viewed on 10 May 2020]. Latest Guyana discovery opens the way to a new 10 billion barrel oil province and transformation for one of South America's smallest countries [online]. Westwood Global Energy Group. Available from: https://www.westwoodenergy.com/news/westwood-insight/latest-guyana-discovery-opens-the-way/
  » https://www.westwoodenergy.com/news/westwood-insight/latest-guyana-discovery-opens-the-way/
• PAGE, S.E., RIELEY, J.O. and BANKS, C.J., 2011. Global and regional importance of the tropical peatland carbon pool. Global Change Biology, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 798-818. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02279.x
  » http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02279.x
• RAGHOENANDAN, U., 2000.The Guianas (Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana). In: S. POREMBSKI and W. BARTHLOTT, eds. Inselbergs: biotic diversity of isolated rock outcrops in tropical and temperate regions Switzerland: Springer, pp. 315-338. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-59773-2_16
  » http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-59773-2_16
• ROUCOUX, K.H., LAWSON, I.T., BAKER, T.R., DEL CASTILLO TORRES, D., DRAPER, F.C., LÄHTEENOJA, O., GILMORE, M., HONORIO CORONADO, E., KELLY, T., MITCHARD, E. and VRIESENDORP, C.F., 2017. Threats to intact tropical peatlands and opportunities for their conservation. Conservation Biology, vol. 31, no. 6, pp. 1283-1292. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12925 PMid:28272753.
  » http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12925
• RUOKOLAINEN, K., SCHULMAN, L. and TUOMISTO, H., 2001. On Amazonian peatlands. Global Ecology and Conservation, vol. 4, pp. 8-10.
• TAGLE CASAPIA, X., FALEN, L., BARTHOLOMEUS, H., CÁRDENAS, R., FLORES, G., HEROLD, M., HONORIO CORONADO, E.N. and BAKER, T.R., 2020. Identifying and quantifying the abundance of economically important palms in tropical moist forest using UAV imagery. Remote Sensing, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 9. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs12010009
  » http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs12010009
• TER STEEGE, H., 2001. Biomass estimates for F biomass estimates for forest in Guyana and their use in carbon offsets. Georgetown: Iwokrama International Centre for Rain Forest Conservation and Development. Research Report 1999-01.
• TRUMPER, K., 2009 [viewed on 10 May 2020]. The natural fix?: the role of ecosystems in climate mitigation: a UNEP rapid response assessment [online]. Cambridge: United Nations Environment Programme. Available from: http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11822/7852
  » http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11822/7852
• VAN DER HOEK, Y., SOLAS, S.Á. and PEÑUELA, M.C., 2019. The palm Mauritia flexuosa, a keystone plant resource on multiple fronts. Biodiversity and Conservation, vol. 28, no. 3, pp. 539. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10531-018-01686-4
  » http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10531-018-01686-4
• VIRAPONGSE, A., ENDRESS, B.A., GILMORE, M.P., HORN, C. and ROMULO, C., 2017. Ecology, livelihoods, and management of the Mauritia flexuosa palm in South America. Global Ecology and Conservation, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 70-92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2016.12.005
  » http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2016.12.005
• ZINCK, J.A. and HUBER, O., 2011. Peatlands of the western guayana highlands, Venezuela: properties and paleogeographic significance of peats Switzerland: Springer. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-20138-7
  » http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-20138-7

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  11 June 2021
• Date of issue
  2022

History

• Received
  12 May 2020
• Accepted
  20 Oct 2020