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Original Article • Braz. J. Biol. 85 • 2025 • https://doi.org/10.1590/1519-6984.282304 linkcopy

Open-access Integrated study of indigenous people’ local ecological knowledge and diet analysis to understand the feeding ecology of the herbivorous serrasalmids in a dammed Amazonian River

Estudo integrado do conhecimento ecológico local indígena e análise da dieta para compreender a ecologia alimentar de serrasalmídeos herbívoros em um rio represado na Amazônia

Abstract

The Xingu River is facing impacts from the recently built Belo Monte Hydropower Plant (HPP), which is jeopardizing the pacus (herbivorous fish of the family Serrasalmidae and primary food source for the Yudjá people) derived from the Big Bend of Xingu (BBX). Part of the water volume in the BBX was redirected to an artificial canal as part of the Belo Monte HPP project. Thus, this study aims to analyze the trophic ecology of pacus through diet analysis and the Local Ecological Knowledge (LEK) of the Yudjá people using a qualitative-quantitative approach on the diet of those fish and check potential changes in fish welfare (mass/total legth3) in the BBX after the construction of the Belo Monte HPP. Overall, 133 specimens of eight herbivorous serrasalmid species were sampled after the damming, and previous data on 107 fish specimens of five species were gathered from landings. Terrestrial plants, fruits, and aquatic plants have the highest dietary importance for these fish, indicating the great importance of floodplains and rapids for herbivorous serrasalmids. Well-being, body size, and total mass show that these fish are already being negatively affected by the damming. The Yudjá are thus already feeling these impacts. The current water flow in the BBX is meagre for fish maintenance, and consequently, for the Yudjá people in BBX. Therefore, the amount of water flow to the BBX needs revision to avoid irreversible impacts.

Keywords:
Belo Monte; hydrological cycle; impacts; Xingu; pacus

Resumo

O rio Xingu vem enfrentando os impactos causados pela recém construção da Usina Hidrelétrica (UHE) Belo Monte, que está afetando os pacus (peixes herbívoros da família Serrasalmidae e a fonte primária de proteína dos Yudjás) da região da Volta Grande do Xingu (VGX). Parte do volume de água do VGX foi redirecionado para um canal artificial no projeto da UHE Belo Monte. Dessa forma, este estudo objetiva analisar a ecologia trófica dos pacus por meio análise de dieta e do Conhecimento Ecológico Local (CEL) dos Yudjás, utilizando uma abordagem qualitativa-quantitativa da dieta deste peixe, além de verificar potenciais mudanças no bem-estar dos pacus na VGX após a construção da UHE Belo Monte. Ao todo, 133 espécimes de 8 espécies de serrasalmídeos foram coletados antes da barragem, e dados prévios de 107 espécimes foram obtidos. Plantas alóctones, frutas e macroalgas apresentaram maior importância na alimentação desses peixes, indicando a grande relevância das corredeiras e planícies de inundação para esses serrasalmídeos herbívoros. O bem-estar, o comprimento total e a massa corporal desses peixes mostram que estes já estão sendo negativamente afetados pela barragem. Os Yudjás também já estão sentindo esses impactos. O volume atual de água sendo convertido para a VGX é insuficiente para a manutenção dos pacus, e consequentemente, dos Yudjás na VGX. Assim, uma revisão do volume de água da VGX atual é necessária para se evitar impactos irreversíveis.

Palavras-chave:
Belo Monte; ciclo hidrológico; impactos; Xingu; pacus

1. Introduction

Amazonian rivers are highly influenced by rainfall regimes leading to seasonal flooding of vast floodplain areas, which also provides major input of allochthonous sources into the fluvial system (Junk et al., 2011). Unsurprisingly, these seasonal allochthonous inputs deeply affect fauna and flora (Horn et al., 2011). For instance, reproductive cycles of diverse floodplain plants are synchronized with flood pulses; many species' seed dispersion depends on changes in water level, being either carried by water or by aquatic animals (Horn et al., 2011). Likewise, aquatic vertebrates, such as fishes, have their assemblages structured by flood pulses, which provide several temporary habitats for feeding, shelter, and spawning away from open river predators (Ferreira et al., 2014; Freitas et al., 2015; Zacardi et al., 2017). Thus, fauna and flora life strategies are tightly linked to seasonal floods, and as such, are highly affected by changes in it.

Despite the need for seasonal flood pulses to the conservation of many of these Amazonian species, there have been constant changes due to constructions of Hydropower Plants (HPP) (Winemiller et al., 2016; Keppeler et al., 2022). HPPs are responsible for most impacts that affect the local biota due to changes in the native water cycle, affecting not only fauna migration routes, but also and the flow of nutrients and energy within trophic cascades (Lees et al., 2016; Winemiller et al., 2016; Keppeler et al., 2022). Additionally, these changes can also result in habitat destruction due to the lack of regular connection between lakes and the main river system (Welcomme, 2008). Such disconnectedness negatively affects fish assemblages by reducing or obliterating food sources and spawning areas (Winemiller et al., 2016). Beyond their effects on fauna and fauna, Amazonian HPPs, such as Belo Monte HPP in the Xingu River (Sabaj Perez, 2015), cause major landscape changes. Hence, HPPs have become a concerning point around discussions on protection, preservation and restoration of ecological communities.

All the previously mentioned impacts of HPPs in ecological communities also affect traditional and native Amazonian people. The most prominent effect on these communities lies in their diet, as fishes are one of the main protein sources of Brazilian Amazonians, with the highest fish consumption per capita worldwide - 170 kg/person/year (Isaac et al., 2015). More recently, studies have shown that fish are the primary protein consumed by the Xingu River people (Francesco and Carneiro, 2015; Pezzuti et al., 2018; Zuanon et al., 2020). More specifically, herbivore fishes of the family Serrasalmidae play a dual role by being both seed dispersal vectors (Galetti et al., 2008; Correa et al., 2015a, b) and main food source for traditional communities throughout the year (Carneiro and Pezzuti, 2015; Magalhães et al., 2016). Therefore, better understanding of the feeding ecology of these fishes will help to highlight the ecological role of the species, providing useful information on decision-making processes around environmental conservation (Daskalov et al., 2007; Ferreira et al., 2014).

As traditional Amazonian communities have used natural fish stock for their diet, their people have adapted their own lifestyle to the fish's natural life cycles (Rebelo et al., 2010; Magalhães et al., 2016). As such, different human populations have gathered knowledge about aquatic fauna around them, and more importantly, have passed it down over generations, which we refer as Local Traditional Knowledge (LEK). In recent years, ethnoecological studies on LEK have found relevant data on Amazonian aquatic fauna, such as what preys on local fish species and what these fish feeding habits are (Silvano et al., 2008; Ramires et al., 2015; Jacobi et al., 2020). Therefore, LEK may help to more rapidly define strategies for the implementation of ecological management systems (Silvano et al., 2008; Ramires et al., 2015; Jacobi et al., 2020), generating essential information for the conservation of fish (Silvano et al., 2008; Silvano and Begossi, 2010; Begossi et al., 2011; Andrade et al., 2016a, b).

In areas where HPPs are built, it is common to have a lack of ecological information from before the dam is constructed (Hallwass et al., 2013), such as sources food for fish. In situations like those, LEK can be a useful tool to gain information about the past (Hallwass et al., 2013). In fact, the LEK has been used in many ways to assess impacts of damming, in the Tucurui Dam a study evaluated the composition of the fish stock 40 years after the damming, showing a timeline of changes in the fish composition (Hallwass et al., 2013).

Thus, we applied an integrated survey of the feeding ecology of herbivorous serrasalmids in a region of Xingu affected by dam construction. This survey consisted of collecting LEK from the Yudjá people, an indigenous ethnic group derived from the middle Xingu River and comparing it to data collected through stomach content analysis of local serrasalmids. Our study also describes the seasonal variation in fish feeding ecology between dry and wet seasons after the damming of Xingu River, identifying the primary food sources for local serrasalmid species. Finally, we compare fish size, mass, and welfare from before and after dam construction by Belo Monte HPP, which directly shows its impact on local fish stocks. Our findings not only contribute to the growing data on the impact of dam construction on local fauna and human communities but also highlight LEK and biological data as complementary tools to understand damming effects on Amazonian rivers.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study area

The Xingu River is the main right-bank clearwater tributary of the lower Amazon River basin, along with the Iriri and Bacajá Rivers (Sabaj Perez, 2015). The present study was carried out at the ‘Big Bend’ of Xingu (BBX), an area which currently has an altered flood pulse due to the Belo Monte HPP built in 2016 (Andrade et al., 2016a). HPP construction changed most of the water flow through an artificial channel and lake between two dams; the original water stream located between them, known as ‘Big Bend’ of Xingu (BBX), had its flow severely impacted (Figure 1). This area encompasses indigenous lands (IL) of Paquiçamba and Arara da Volta Grande, which are directly affected by Belo Monte HPP, as their populations depend on the river for subsistence, locomotion, and culture (Francesco and Carneiro, 2015). The indigenous people from the Juruna ethnicity (or as they prefer, the Yudjá, meaning owners of the river in their native language) live in Paquiçamba IL, which contains three indigenous villages: Paquiçamba, Mïratu, and Furo Seco (Francesco and Carneiro, 2015). The present study was assisted by the indigenous people from Mïratu village and is part of the project for monitoring the fishing landings by the Associação Yudjá Mïratu da Volta Grande do Xingu (AYMÏX), Instituto Socioambiental (ISA), Universidade Federal do Pará (UFPA), and Universidade Federal de São Carlos (UFSCar), have patterned to monitor the region since 2013 (Carneiro and Pezzuti, 2015; Pezzuti et al., 2018).

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Figure 1
Sites in the Xingu River after the damming by Belo Monte Hydropower Plant in the Big Bend of Xingu (Volta Grande do Xingu).

2.2. Sampling design

Sampling was performed over 10 days in each of the two seasons: dry (October 2017) and wet (April 2018). Fish specimens were collected from local fisheries for community consumption, and as such were gathered by people using traditional fishing gear, such as casting nets, gillnets, a modification of long line (‘atiradeira’ in Brazilian Portuguese), and screen gillnet, as described by Mesquita and Isaac-Nahum (2015). Specimens were collected from backwaters, rapids, islands, beaches, rocky outcrops, floodplains, and river channels.

After sampling, freshly collected specimens were taxonomically identified, their total length (in centimeters, c) and weight (in grams, g) was measured. Subsequently, their entire gastrointestinal tract was removed, fixed with 10% formaldehyde solution, labeled and stored in plastic bags. Before laboratory analysis, stomach samples were washed with running water, then preserved with 70% alcohol, and finally identified and grouped into food categories. Biometric data from dry and wet seasons of 2014 (before damming) were collected by the Environmental Basic Plan – Indigenous Component, in the same way as mentioned in the previous paragraph, and were provided by Norte Energia to the AYMÏX, but unfortunately stomach content data from before dam construction was not available.

Additionally, for all the previously mentioned years that information regarding the pacus' biometrics was available (2014, 2017, 2018), data from the water flow in the BBX was also collected. To determine the extent of the water flow changes before (2014) and after (2017, 2018) dam construction, these values were compared using Mann Whitney in R software, version 3.5.1 (R Core Team, 2018).

2.3. Diet analysis

For the years 2017 and 2018, when specimens' stomachs were available, their content was analyzed under stereomicroscope and classified to the lowest taxonomic level. Each item was weighed on an electronic scale (A&D, model GR200) with a 0.0001g accuracy, and although empty stomachs were counted (eleven in total, found in the post-damming period), they were excluded from downstream analysis.

Stomach items were classified in six categories: 1 – terrestrial plants (leaves, flowers, stalks, and ground plant material, all from terrestrial plants); 2 – aquatic plants (Podostemaceae, algae, periphyton, and other aquatic plants); 3 – terrestrial invertebrates (Diptera, Hemiptera, Orthoptera, Arachnids, Arthropods, and Coleoptera) 4 – aquatic invertebrates (Ephemeroptera, Simuliidae, Collembola, Trichoptera, Odonata, Annelids, Gastropods, and Porifera); 5 – fish and bird pieces (unidentified bone material, generally comprised of pieces of fish, scales, spines, and feathers); and 6 – fruits (entire fruits and seeds from terrestrial plants). All remaining items that did not fit in the previous categories, such as sandy sediment, plastic particles, Trematodes, and Nematodes were removed from the analysis, as they are not considered to have significant nutritional value for fishes (the first two are likely ingested by accident, and the others are likely intestinal parasites/commensals). Additionally, due to representing a large fraction of the items found, fruits from terrestrial plants had their own category. Each item's weight was used to calculate their Alimentary Importance index (Ai%), as previously described (Equation 1):

A i = F i x W i / ∑ i = 1 n F i x W i (1)

where Fi is the frequency of occurrence of item i and Wi is the weight of item i (Kawakami and Vazzoler, 1980).

Bray-Curtis distance was used to compare diet similarity among species Ai% values and plotted on a heatmap using the R software, version 3.5.1 (R Core Team, 2018).

2.4. Body mass, size, and condition factor

Fulton’s condition factor (K) was calculated to compare the physiological condition (welfare) of pacus from before (2014) and after (2017, 2018) the Xingu River damming, using K = W/TL3 (where W is the total body weight in grams, TL is the total length in centimeters, and 3 is the isometric coefficient). W, TL and K values were compared individually for dry and wet seasons between before (2014) and after-damming (2017, 2018) periods using analysis of variance (ANOVA or Kruskal-Wallis), and a priori analysis of the normality of data using a Shapiro-Wilk test in the PAST software, version 2.17c (Hammer et al., 2001).

2.5. Local ecological knowledge (LEK) of pacus feeding behavior

We conducted interviews with all fishers from Mïratu village using semi-structured questionnaires about pacus feeding behavior over the different seasons (dry and wet) and periods (before and after damming). In addition, questionnaires elicited fishers’ perception of the physiological condition of pacus. Twenty-one fishers participated in the study, representing the twenty families in Mïratu village; 90% were males and have been fishing for more than 10 years. We classified the food items mentioned in the interviews as: 1 – fruit (fruits and seeds); 2 – flowers (whole flowers and petals); 3 – brush (leaves, stalks, and barks of trees); 4 – birds (pieces of meat and feathers); 3 – sponge (scraped Porifera); 5 – invertebrates; 6 – aquatic plants; 7 – fish. After that, we used the Shannon-Weaver diversity index (H’) to compare the items mentioned by fishers with food items found the stomach of sampled specimens.

Regarding the physiological condition of specimens, we posed questions about the season when pacus was either “thinner” or “fatter”, either as having “lost” or “gained” weight, or whether fish did not change between before- and after-damming periods. We also compared this information with K values. We made a table of comparative cognition (Marques, 2012), where the information provided by the interviews with fishers from Mïratu village was compared with the food items found in the stomach contents of pacus and cited in literature.

3. Results

The results described here correspond to 107 and 133 specimens collected before and after damming, respectively (Table 1). Specimens from eight taxonomic species (plus their respective vernacular names) were found: Myleus setiger (Müller and Troschel, 1844; pacu-caranha), Myloplus arnoldi (Ahl, 1936; pacu-peidão or pacu-folha), Myloplus asterias (Müller and Troschel, 1844; pacu-olhudo), Myloplus rubripinnis (Müller and Troschel, 1844; pacu-branco), Myloplus schomburgkii (Jardine, 1841; pacu-cadete), Ossubtus xinguense (Jégu, 1992; pacu-capivara), Tometes ancylorhynchus (Andrade et al., 2016a; pacu-rosa), and Tometes kranponhah (Andrade et al., 2016a; pacu-curupité). In terms of water flow measurements, we found a significant reduction by approximately 5000 m3/s in April of 2018 (before-damming) compared to April 2014 (after-damming, Figure 2, W = 85, p <0.05).

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Table 1
Average and standard deviation of total length (TL) and weight (W), number of specimens (N) collected in the Big Bend of the Xingu River during dry and wet seasons and before- and after-damming periods.
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Figure 2
Water flow (m3/s) in the ‘Big Bend’ of Xingu during the years of 2014, 2017, and 2018.

3.1. Diet analysis

Pacus' diet was unchanged in terms of the number of categories found in the dry and wet seasons (6 items; Figure 3). Moreover, terrestrial plants had the highest dietary importance in both seasons for most species (Ai-wet = 40.4%; Ai-dry = 72.8%), followed by fruits (Ai-wet = 29.7%; Ai-dry = 21.8%). Except for Tometes ancylorhynchus and M. arnoldi, that during the dry season mainly fed on fish and bird pieces (Ai = 61.7%) and aquatic plants (Ai = 52.7%), respectively. For two species that were only found during the wet season (O. xinguense and T. kranponhah), aquatic plants were their main food source (Ai = 99.9%; and Ai = 97.9%, respectively). Ossubtus xinguense was the only species among the eight collected, which did not present terrestrial plants in diet, and only M. asterias did not present invertebrates whether terrestrial or aquatic.

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Figure 3
Alimentary importance index (Ai%) for serrasalmid species from BBX collected during dry and wet seasons.

Cluster analysis (Figure 4) showed two groups, one with the species T. kranponhah, O. xinguense, T. ancylorhynchus, and M. arnoldi from the wet season, grouped together due to mostly feeding on aquatic plants. Within this group there is a subgroup containing M. arnoldi and T. ancylorhynchus separated from the other two species by feeding largely on fish and bird pieces. The last main group is formed by all the remaining species which ingested terrestrial plants, with three subgroups. We observed that M. rubripinnis grouped within the terrestrial plant group due to the large presence of fruit in their diet during both seasons. It is worth mentioning that M. arnoldi from the dry season fed mostly on fish and bird pieces; in that way it stayed separated from the larger group, which consists of species mainly feeding on terrestrial plants.

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Figure 4
Cluster analysis and heatmap based on similarity of alimentary importance of food sources for pacus during dry and wet seasons.

3.2. Changes in mass, size, and physiological condition

For all species grouped, the condition factor was lower after damming for species during the wet season (Table 2) (S1, Supplementary Material). Comparisons with only species that co-occurred in periods before and after damming (i.e., M. rubripinnis, M. schomburgkii, M. setiger, O. xinguense and T. kranponhah) showed that only M. rubripinnis and O. xinguense displayed differences in their condition factor between before and after damming. Myloplus rubripinnis, in the dry season, and O. xinguense, in the wet season, presented a lower condition factor after damming (Tables 2 and 3).

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Table 2
Comparisons between periods when serrasalmids were collected in the Big Bend of Xingu; before and after the damming of the Xingu River by Belo Monte Hydropower Plant.
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Table 3
Range values of the Fulton’s condition factor (K), mean and standard deviation (SD) of the pacus species collected in the Big Bend of the Xingu River in the different periods and seasons.

Comparisons of pacus’ sizes with all species grouped were significantly smaller after damming during the dry season but were unchanged during the wet season (Table 2). The mass of pacus comparing all species together proved that fish lost weight after damming whether in the dry or wet season (Table 2). Comparing only the co-occurring species, T. kranponhah and O. xinguense (collected during wet seasons), and M. rubripinnis (collected during dry seasons) were smaller and thinner in the post-damming period (Table 2).

3.3. Local ecological knowledge of pacus feeding behavior

Based on the Shannon-Weaver index (H’), there is higher diversity of food items ingested by fishes (wet = 8 items; dry = 6 items) than food items mentioned by fishers (wet = 3 items; dry = 6) (wet = H’Diet= 1.56; H’Interview= 0.571; dry = H’Diet= 1.555; H’interview= 1.360). The results for the wet season were consistent with the statistical analysis when we compared the LEK with the condition factor from before and after the damming (Table 2, when the pacus had the lowest K values in the wet season after damming). As all fishers said that the fish is currently tasting bad, smooth and that the pacus were slimmer following damming. Indeed, our findings for M. rubripinnis (during the dry season) and O. xinguense (during the wet season) support fishers' perception.

Upon asking the fishers if the pacus are either fatter or thinner regarding seasons, most of the fishers indicated differences between seasons, saying that it is possible to find fattest pacus during wet season. The condition factor results for the grouped species also support their narrative, as fish exhibit notable seasonal variations (S1, Supplementary Material). In line with the responses given by most fishers, the remaining co-occurring species exhibited greater K values during wet seasons, except for T. kranponhah, which did not exhibit seasonal variations. The comparative cognition table (Table 4) based on food items of pacus mentioned by fishers shows strong consistency with literature and with the collection of food items found in the stomach contents analyzed here.

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Table 4
Comparative cognition table of the feeding ecology of pacus from the Big Bend of Xingu.

4. Discussion

Our results on the physiological condition, weight and size of pacus, and the LEK emphasize that pacus assemblages have been endangered due to changes caused by Belo Monte HHP. During wet season, both fish welfare and weight decreased after damming, while size remained similar. This suggests that although most fish still develop to their expected length, they are skinnier (with lower weight) likely due to poorer physiological condition (lower K values) post-damming. This happens in association with decreased water flow in BBX region during the wet season after damming, which may be insufficient to temporarily flood nearby forests which represent important food sources for fish. For instance, some food items found in the pacus stomachs are commonly present in riparian forests, such as Myrciaria dubia (sarão), Simaba orinocensis (fig), Psidium spp. (guava). More drastically, our measurements showed that not only weight, but also length of pacus are lower during dry season post-damming, which is in line with descriptions given by the Yudjá people. This may be a result of additive effects of lower dissolved oxygen and higher temperatures during the dry seasons that negatively affect macroalgae abundance (Souza-Cruz-Buenaga et al., 2019), which are now amplified due to lower water flow post-damming. Assembled, these findings suggest that lower water flow, as a result of damming, directly and indirectly limits fish access to their natural feeding sources, which are most prominent during the dry season, both phenomena being observed by the Yudjá people.

Ossubtus xinguense and T. kranponhah are herbivorous rheophilic serrasalmids frequently found in rapids that are endemic to the Xingu River basin (Andrade et al., 2019). Along the rapids of the Xingu River, Podostomaceae aquatic plants are massively present (Abe et al., 2015; Medeiros et al., 2015), they typically grow to high densities during the wet season (Devi et al., 2016) and represent an abundant food source to the fishes (Andrade et al., 2019). Since the flood pulse of the BBX has changed because of the Belo Monte HHP, growth patterns of aquatic plants may also be affected, as previously observed (Fitzgerald et al., 2018). Thus, changes in water flow due to Belo Monte HPP construction may decrease the growth of native Podostomaceae plants, consequently decreasing the chances of survivorship of endemic rheophilic pacus that feed on them.

The remaining species we studied here had herbivore behavior, except for T. ancylorhynchus and M. arnoldi during the wet season, which we can classify as an omnivorous species. The high percentage of terrestrial plants in the serrasalmid diet, even during the dry season, indicates the importance of seasonally flooded forests for pacus assemblage, as higher input of food items (terrestrial plants) to the river occurs during ascending water levels. Terrestrial fruits and seeds are among the items ingested by Serrasalmidae fish in this study, which may indicate their role as seed dispersal vectors, as previously reported (Horn et al., 2011). Plants cited by the Yudjá - such as Chrysophyllum sanguinolentum, Hevea brasiliensis, Astrocaryum spp., and the Spondias mombin- still bear fruit in periods when the flow in the BBX is reduce by around 34 to 70% (Utsunomiya et al., 2024). Thus, conservation of these alluvial forests, which contain the highest density of rare species from all biomes in the BBX (Salomão et al., 2007), depends on this interaction, once lower flow in the BBX is hindering certain plants, particularly fruit trees, as the ichthyochory may not occur due to low water levels (Utsunomiya et al., 2024).

Since changes in flood pulses can prevent fish from accessing the food items from floodplains (Fitzgerald et al., 2018), Belo Monte HHP is thought to have changed the composition and abundance of food sources provided for this fish assemblage (Souza-Cruz-Buenaga et al., 2019; Keppeler et al., 2022). Furthermore, there was a great drought in 2016 in the region, caused by of the 2015-2016 El Niño phenomenon, and worsened by the damming, which generated a lower flow rate (10,000 m3/s in April, when 23,000m3/s were expected, representing the peak of the flooding season). Consequently, not only were fish mortality rates high, but also annual spawning hampered due to inaccessible flooded forest (Pezzuti et al., 2018). More alarming is the current water flow control suggested by the National Water Agency (ANA), who proposes a trial alternation between 4,000 m3/s and 8,000m3/s water flow by Belo Monte HHP to the Xingu River (Pezzuti et al., 2018). The flow rates proposed by ANA are not sufficient for the maintenance of wildlife in the BBX, where it is necessary to achieve 15,0000m3/ at the peak of the flooding season (Zuanon et al., 2020). In summary, the effects of El Niño on BBX illustrate how changes in the flood pulse might make fish assemblages more vulnerable, especially in the context of climate change.

The food sources mentioned by the Yujá fishers were less diverse than the items found in the stomach contents of pacus. Indeed, based on the fishers' knowledge on the feeding behavior of fishes (Begossi et al., 2011; Ramires et al., 2015; Silvano and Begossi, 2016), they use only main food items as bait for fishing, which explains the lower diversity of food sources stated by fishers as compared to those found in the stomach contents of pacus. Nevertheless, the Yudjá fishers were able to identify specific food sources for pacus, pointing out to the species of fruits, flowers, and leaves consumed by the fish, which in some cases weren't found in the stomach content, likely due to their soft nature. These findings demonstrate that the LEK can be an effective method to understanding fish diets, enabling us to collect similar information from diet analyses yet much more quickly and affordably.

Although Belo Monte HHP was not operating at full power when the data for this work was collected (Carneiro and Pezzuti, 2015), pacus assemblages have already been negatively impacted by environmental changes due to its construction. Accordingly, these impacts are already affecting the Yudjá and other riverside communities living along the BBX, as changes in fish assemblages will affect the main year-round food supply for these peoples (Carneiro and Pezzuti, 2015; Pezzuti et al., 2018, 2024; Zuanon et al., 2020). In fact, the decrease in the supply of fish can cause alterations in the Yudjá's diet, as inclusion of procced food (Pezzuti et al., 2018; Begossi et al., 2019).

The major prevalence of terrestrial plants and aquatic plants in the pacus diet illustrates the great importance of flooded forests and rapids for these fish, emphasizing how these animals depend on the flood pulse. The biometric analysis and LEK showed that pacus assemblages are enduring the impacts of damming, and this has been harming the Yudjá people who live in the BBX. These impacts tend to increase with the adoption of artificial hydrological regimes, which are insufficient to provide native aquatic wildlife access to floodplains. Therefore, we require urgent review of the planned rates of water flow to the BBX to avoid irreparable damage to the endemic fishes and traditional/native communities that live off the river.

Supplementary Material

Supplementary material accompanies this paper.

S1

This material is available as part of the online article from https://10.1590/1519-6984.282304.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the Yudjá from Mïratu village and the association AYMÏX, holders of the local ecological knowledge shown in this study. We are grateful to Pedro, Antônio, Nei, Jailson, Michael, Jelson, José, Irá, Jair, Leiliane, Anderson, Junior, Marlon, Jacaré, Josiel, Luis, Severino, Irineu, and Natanael, for participating in the interviews and granting permission to publish them. We thank Instituto Socioambiental (ISA) for their financial and logistic support. ALPS and FCN were funded by Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível – CAPES - Finance Code 001. MÂ received a grant from the “Centro de Triagem de Invertebrados” (UFPA/FADESP project #4390/ITV-DS project #R100603.CT.02). MÂ is also funded by the Conselho nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq #310522/2023-4). JCBP was awarded a productivity grant from the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico. This study is part of the master’s dissertation of ALPS in Aquatic Ecology and Fishing Graduate School Program. The Universidade Federal do Pará funded the English review through the Programa de Apoio à Publicação Qualificada (PAPQ/ EDITAL 01/2019 - PROPESP). We would like to thank Danielson Amaral and Christopher Blank for further reviewing translation of this manuscript to English.

Data Availability Statement

Data is available upon request.

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*

e-mail: ana-lauraps@hotmail.com

Editor:

Takako Matsumura Tundisi

Publication Dates

  • Publication in this collection
    29 Sept 2025
  • Date of issue
    2025

History

  • Received
    15 Jan 2024
  • Accepted
    01 July 2024
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