Bioactive potential of safflower: nutritional and functional aspects

Potencial bioativo do cártamo: aspectos nutricionais e funcionais

Abstract

The present study sought to gather and critically examine scientific evidence concerning the chemical composition of safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) oil and its potential applications within food science and technology. A narrative review of the literature was carried out using articles published in national and international databases, focusing on investigations related to lipid characterization, identification of bioactive constituents, and technological uses in food systems. Available data indicate that safflower oil is rich in unsaturated fatty acids, especially linoleic and oleic acids, and also contains tocopherols, phytosterols, phenolic compounds, and quinochalcones linked to antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. In technological terms, the oil has shown potential for incorporation into food products designed to improve lipid composition and oxidative stability, as well as for use in formulations associated with functional properties. Taken together, the findings suggest that safflower oil may serve as a relevant raw material for the development of value-added food ingredients. Nevertheless, further controlled clinical investigations and studies addressing compositional variability and standardization are still required to better establish its effectiveness and safety for human consumption.

Keywords:
Carthamus tinctorius; Physiology; Antioxidants; Saffron; Biochemistry; Fatty acids

Highlights

Safflower oil contains bioactive compounds of nutritional interest

It has relevant antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and lipid-lowering effects

Nutraceutical potential for the prevention of chronic non-communicable diseases

Resumo

O presente estudo teve como objetivo reunir e examinar criticamente evidências científicas sobre a composição química do óleo de cártamo (Carthamus tinctorius L.) e suas potenciais aplicações na ciência e tecnologia de alimentos. Foi realizada uma revisão narrativa da literatura com base em artigos publicados em bases de dados nacionais e internacionais, com foco em investigações relacionadas à caracterização lipídica, identificação de constituintes bioativos e aplicações tecnológicas em sistemas alimentares. Os dados disponíveis indicam que o óleo de cártamo é rico em ácidos graxos insaturados, especialmente ácido linoleico e ácido oleico, e também contém tocoferóis, fitoesteróis, compostos fenólicos e quinochalconas associados a propriedades antioxidantes e anti-inflamatórias. Do ponto de vista tecnológico, o óleo tem demonstrado potencial para incorporação em produtos alimentícios destinados à melhoria do perfil lipídico e da estabilidade oxidativa, bem como em formulações relacionadas a propriedades funcionais. De modo geral, os achados sugerem que o óleo de cártamo pode constituir uma matéria-prima relevante para o desenvolvimento de ingredientes alimentícios com valor agregado. Entretanto, ainda são necessários estudos clínicos controlados e investigações sobre variabilidade composicional e padronização para melhor estabelecer sua eficácia e segurança para consumo humano.

Palavras-chave:
Carthamus tinctorius; Fisiologia; Antioxidantes; Açafrão-bastardo; Bioquímica; Ácidos graxos

1 Introduction

The global food landscape is undergoing structural changes driven by increasing consumer awareness of the intrinsic relationship between diet and long-term health. This growing demand for functional foods and natural ingredients with health-promoting properties has catalyzed a rigorous search for versatile agricultural crops capable of simultaneously fulfilling the demands of the food, industrial, and nutraceutical sectors (Sharma et al., 2023). Within this context, safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.), an ancient oilseed species belonging to the Asteraceae family, has re-emerged as a promising candidate for high-value agricultural exploitation. Its prominence is attributed to its remarkable agroclimatic adaptability, multifunctional utility, and distinctive chemical profile that differentiates it from widely cultivated oilseeds such as soybean and palm (Ghiasy-Oskoee & Agha Alikhani, 2023; Thoday-Kennedy et al., 2023). Although historically classified as a conventional or minor oilseed, safflower is increasingly recognized as an underutilized species with strategic relevance for diversifying global vegetable oil value chains (Gomashe et al., 2021; Gupta, 2022).

Currently, safflower is cultivated in several countries worldwide, reflecting its broad geographic adaptability (Hussain et al., 2016). Global production is concentrated in key regions, notably India, the United States of America (USA), Mexico, Argentina, China, Kazakhstan, and Russia (Kammili & Yadav, 2022). According to Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) data reported in Cheng et al. (2024), global safflower cultivation occurred in almost 20 countries, with the highest seed production in Kazakhstan, followed by Russia, the USA, Mexico, India, China, and Turkey in 2021. In Brazil, safflower shows wide edaphoclimatic adaptation and has been studied as a crop with economic potential (Menegaes & Nunes, 2020). Its inclusion in cropping systems has been suggested as an alternative for diversification and adaptation to climatic variability (Sajid et al., 2024b). High water-use efficiency and the ability to maintain productivity under marginal conditions reinforce its agronomic relevance in vulnerable agricultural environments (Sajid et al., 2024a).

The primary commercial value of C. tinctorius lies in its seed oil, characterized by a genetically variable fatty acid profile that enables the development of high-linoleic or high-oleic types through breeding (Kurt et al., 2025). High-linoleic varieties are characterized by elevated linoleic acid (C18:2) content, an essential omega-6 fatty acid, whereas high-oleic types present increased oleic acid levels associated with greater oxidative stability (Abd El-Baset et al., 2024). Technological improvements in safflower oil production have also enhanced its industrial applicability (Kakimov et al., 2024).

Beyond its fatty acid composition, safflower oil contains bioactive compounds such as tocopherols and phenolic constituents (Zemour et al., 2019). Additionally, safflower has been reported to contain phytosterols and serotonin derivatives among its pharmacologically relevant metabolites (Mani et al., 2020). These molecules contribute to oxidative stability and exhibit antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential (Mirghani & Elmoghtaba, 2024; Arshad et al., 2025). Phytosterols, including β-sitosterol and campesterol, are recognized for their role in reducing intestinal cholesterol absorption (Mirghani & Elmoghtaba, 2024). The growing demand for differentiated and functional lipid sources has further stimulated industrial interest in safflower oil (Arshad et al., 2025).

From a metabolic perspective, preclinical and clinical evidence suggests that the specific unsaturated fatty acid profile and associated bioactive fractions of safflower oil may modulate lipid metabolism and inflammatory pathways. Its consumption has been associated with improvements in markers related to insulin sensitivity and components of metabolic syndrome in humans. Additionally, studies report associations with improved markers of metabolic health, indicating potential relevance in dietary strategies aimed at mitigating the progression of cardiovascular diseases and type 2 diabetes (Li et al., 2025; Ruyvaran et al., 2022). Although these findings are promising, the mechanistic interactions between safflower-derived bioactives and long-term health outcomes require further systematic evaluation.

Despite advances in genetic improvement and molecular characterization of C. tinctorius, including genome-based approaches and marker-assisted breeding strategies (Yılmaz et al., 2021; Zhao et al., 2023), information concerning the biochemical behavior of its bioactive compounds within food systems and their specific physiological implications remains fragmented. While agronomic and industrial attributes are relatively well documented, an integrated synthesis focused on the health-related functionality of safflower oil is still lacking.

Therefore, the present study is justified by the need to compile and systematize current scientific knowledge regarding the principal bioactive compounds present in C. tinctorius oil and their implications for health promotion. The objective of this work was to conduct a comprehensive narrative literature review addressing the identification, characterization, and functional relevance of these bioactive constituents within the broader field of food science and technology.

2 Safflower oil and the use of the plant

Safflower has been increasingly recognized as a multifunctional oilseed crop, with simultaneous uses in edible oil production, natural pigments, and bioactive ingredients for functional foods and pharmaceutical products, as indicated by recent technological surveys and supply-chain–oriented studies (Zhou et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2025; Ye et al., 2024).

Different safflower organs exhibit distinct chemical profiles and applications: seeds are mainly exploited for their lipid fraction and unsaponifiable compounds; petals concentrate quinochalcone-type flavonoids responsible for pigmentation and bioactivity; leaves and stems account for most of the aerial biomass and are rich in structural polysaccharides and phenolics; while industrial processing residues have been increasingly directed toward biorefinery routes and the production of higher value-added bioproducts (Zhou et al., 2022; Ye et al., 2024; Kazemi et al., 2025).

Dehulled seeds contain approximately 28% to 38% oil, which is nearly colorless and tasteless and shows a fatty-acid composition comparable to sunflower oil (Zhou et al., 2022) (Table 1).

Table 1
General comparison of the lipid profiles of safflower, soybean, and sunflower oils.

Parameters	Safflower	Soybean	Sunflower
Seed oil content (%)	20-40	18-22	35-45
Saturated fatty acids (%)	10-18	20-25	8-15
Monounsaturated fatty acids (%)	15-30	20-30	20-80
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (%)	60-80	50-60	10-70
Vitamin E / tocopherols	Moderate–high	Moderate	High

• Values compiled from the literature: Zhou et al. (2022); Patrascoiu et al. (2013); Hou et al. (2024); Cheng et al. (2024).

Table 1 shows that safflower oil is characterized by a predominance of linoleic acid and a high polyunsaturated fatty-acid fraction in conventional cultivars, similarly to sunflower oil. Both oils display wide genetic variability, including high-oleic genotypes, which supports the choice of sunflower as the main comparator from technological and nutritional perspectives. Soybean oil, in contrast, exhibits lower seed oil content and a more balanced distribution of saturated, mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids.

The data summarized in Table 1 were compiled from recent reviews and compositional studies. Zhou et al. (2022) described the close similarity between safflower and sunflower oils in terms of lipid yield and fatty-acid distribution, whereas Hou et al. (2024) provided detailed information on tocopherol contents and unsaponifiable fractions in safflower oil. Soybean-oil values were mainly derived from Patrascoiu et al. (2013), which remains a widely cited reference for oilseed lipid profiles, while Cheng et al. (2024) contributed updated data on functional components and technological applications.

Safflower oil is rich in essential fatty acids, with emphasis on oleic acid (ω-9), which varies between 20% and 30%, and linoleic acid (ω-6), which represents between 70% and 87%. Furthermore, it contains saturated fatty acids, such as palmitic acid (C16:0) at 6% to 8% and stearic acid (C18:0) at 2% to 3%, and is a significant source of α-tocopherols, contributing to its antioxidant capacity (Hou et al., 2024; Zhou et al., 2022).

Phenolic compounds contribute to the oil's stability and nutritional value, helping to prevent oxidative damage to lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, which has stimulated interest in the food industry in natural alternatives to synthetic antioxidants. Studies further indicate that safflower oil is a relevant source of polyphenols with antioxidant potential and anti-aging properties, making it promising for pharmaceutical and cosmetic applications (Ye et al., 2024).

From a technological standpoint, the high linoleic-acid content increases susceptibility to oxidation and confers greater stability at low temperatures, making safflower oil suitable for refrigerated foods. By contrast, high-oleic cultivars show superior thermal stability and reduced smoke formation during frying (Al Surmi et al., 2015; Van et al., 2025). Similar differences between linoleic- and oleic-rich cultivars have also been reported for sunflower, reinforcing the technological relevance of safflower for diversified industrial applications (Zhou et al., 2022).

Regarding the utilization of other safflower plant parts, recent studies highlight the use of petals both in traditional medicinal preparations and as concentrated sources of quinochalcone bioactives applied in functional foods and pharmaceutical formulations (Ye et al., 2024; Zhang et al., 2026). In parallel, leaves and stems, which may represent more than 80% of total plant biomass, are being re-evaluated within a circular-economy framework, shifting from low-value agricultural residues to sources of phenolic compounds, polysaccharides, and substrates for biotechnological applications and active-packaging materials, particularly under environmental stresses that enhance antioxidant contents (Yeloojeh et al., 2020; Kazemi et al., 2025).

3 Benefits to human health

Among the reported benefits of safflower oil to human health, the literature describes its use in the management of various diseases and conditions, including osteoporosis and rheumatoid arthritis (Lee et al., 2002; Kuai et al., 2024; Bai et al., 2025), atherosclerosis (Xue et al., 2021), and inflammatory conditions (Punjanon et al., 2004). More recent investigations have emphasized its potential in cardiovascular, metabolic and neuroinflammatory disorders (Zhang et al., 2024; Bai et al., 2025).

Reports indicate that in Iranian folk medicine, safflower is often used to treat melancholic mood, vitiligo and black spots, rheumatism, paralysis, mouth ulcers, diabetes and related conditions (Cheng et al., 2024). However, most evidence supporting these traditional uses remains preclinical.

Such medicinal properties have been attributed to a wide variety of bioactive substances (Table 2), including fatty acids, phenols, flavonoids, serotonin derivatives, lignans, pigments and volatile oils (Nogala-Kalucka et al., 2010; Zhang et al., 2024; Ren et al., 2025; Zhu et al., 2025). However, the levels of these compounds may vary considerably depending on the genotype and environmental conditions, such as temperature, water availability and salinity (Ashrafi & Razmjoo, 2010).

Table 2
Representative examples of pharmacological activities reported for safflower metabolites in preclinical and experimental models.

Biological Activity	Part of the plant	Active compound	Model biol / lab	Observed activity	References
Anti -inflammatory	Flower	Hydroxysafflor Yellow A	Human Study	Bronchial cell activation and inhibition of pro-inflammatory Platelet-Activating Factor (PAF)	Guo et al. (2019); Yu et al. (2022)
	Flower	Carthamin Yellow	In vivo- Mouse	Complete reduction of ischemia- reperfusion injury	Lu et al. (2019)
	Flower	Hydroxysafflor Yellow B	In vivo- Mouse	Cerebral ischemia and reperfusion injury	Du et al. (2019)
Anticancer	Flower	Safflower polysaccharide	Human Study	Inhibits metastasis and proliferation of breast cancer cells	Luo et al. (2015); Wang et al. (2025)
	Flower	Hydroxysafflor Yellow B	Human Study	Reduces cancer cell growth	Wang et al. (2025)
	Seed	Fatty acid/ phytic acid	In vivo-Mouse	Activity against HEPG2	Doha et al. (2019)
	Seed	Seed extract	In vitro	Inhibits colorectal cancer cells	Jeong et al. (2016)
Antioxidant​	Seed	Granulated seed tea	Human Study	Antioxidant activity and potential effects on postmenopause	Jaradat et al. (2024)
	Flower	Safflower red	In vivo-Mouse	Antioxidant and hepatitis protection	Wu et al. (2013)
	Seed	Serotonin derivatives	In vitro	Strong radical scavenging and lipid peroxidation activity	Khalid et al. (2017); Cheng et al. (2024)
Osteoporosis	Seed	Seed oil	In vivo-Mouse	Improves osteoporosis	Kuai et al. (2024)
	Seed	Seed oil	In vivo-Mouse	Stimulates osteoblasts and fracture recovery	Khalid et al. (2017)
Illness (cerebral and hepatic)	Flower	Hydroxysafflor Yellow A	In vivo-Mouse	Treatment for hepatic fibrogenesis	Dong et al. (2013); Yu et al. (2022)
	Seed	Seed powder	In vivo-Mouse	HEPG2 cytotoxicity and hepatoprotection against non-alcoholic fatty liver disease	Doha et al. (2019); Jing et al. (2026)
	Seed	oil	In vivo-Mouse	Reduction of plasma and hepatic cholesterol, triglycerides and atherogenic index of plasma (AIP)	Ruyvaran et al. (2022); Hou et al. (2024)
Cell proliferation/ inhibition	Seed	N-(p- coumaroyl) serotonin	Human Study	Increases human/mouse fibroblasts	Xian et al. (2022); Zhao et al. (2025)
	Flower	Flower extract	In vivo-Mouse	Effect against diabetes	Wang et al. (2025)

• Table made from the Works of Gomashe et al. (2021).

The data compiled in Table 2 are derived from independent experimental studies employing different extraction methods, biological models and outcome measures, which may limit direct comparison across studies. Despite this methodological heterogeneity, the findings consistently suggest that safflower metabolites exert biological effects primarily through modulation of oxidative stress, inflammatory pathways and metabolic regulation.

Notably, most studies report anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects associated with hydroxysafflor yellow A and related quinochalcones, whereas evidence for other metabolites remains predominantly preclinical. This highlights the central role of flavonoid-derived compounds in the pharmacological profile of safflower.

3.1 Weight control

Safflower oil has gained prominence due to its potential therapeutic properties related to weight control and lipid metabolism. Interest in cultivars high in linoleic acid has grown in recent years due to the recognized metabolic effects of this essential fatty acid (Kiralan & Ramadan, 2016; Jaradat et al., 2024). Because it is not synthesized by the body, linoleic acid is essential in the diet, influencing lipid metabolism and inflammatory processes, in addition to increasing insulin sensitivity and reducing lipid accumulation, suggesting potential antidiabetic and antiobesity effects (Salehi et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2022; Jaradat et al., 2024).

Although widely marketed as a supplement for weight loss and body fat reduction, the clinical benefits of safflower oil in humans remain partially supported and require further controlled trials (Ramos et al., 2009; Ruyvaran et al., 2022). However, Schulze et al. (2014) observed a significant reduction in abdominal circumference in women after supplementation with safflower oil, possibly due to conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), which reduces fatty acid esterification, inhibits adipocyte differentiation, decreases lipogenesis and stimulates lipolysis (Schulze et al., 2014; Ruyvaran et al., 2022; Jaradat et al., 2024).

Thus, C. tinctorius oil has α-amylase inhibitory activity comparable to that of acarbose, suggesting potential for glycemic control (Jaradat et al., 2024). Furthermore, its use may contribute to the prevention of hyperlipidemia and improvement of metabolic parameters, effects attributed to phenolic compounds and fatty acids involved in insulin secretion and glucose homeostasis (Rahimi et al., 2015; Hou et al., 2024; Bai et al., 2025). The aqueous extract of the flower has also been shown to reverse metabolic disturbances in models of alloxan-induced diabetes, highlighting its potential as a hypolipidemic agent in the treatment of diabetes and associated atherosclerosis (Asgary et al., 2012).

3.2 Antioxidant and analgesic effect

According to Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), C. tinctorius has traditionally been used in dried flower form to promote blood circulation, eliminate stasis, and relieve pain (Wang et al., 2021; Bai et al., 2025).

Furthermore, it exhibits anticoagulant, hepatoprotective, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, with protective properties reported of the cardiovascular and cerebrovascular systems (Si et al., 2016; Wu et al., 2018; Bai et al., 2020, 2025). Experimental studies have suggested that safflower extracts may modulate central neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin, which are involved in cognition and emotional regulation (Zhao et al., 2009; Jing et al., 2026; Zhang et al., 2024). However, translational evidence in humans remains limited.

3.3 Anticancer, anti-inflammatory, osteoporosis and Alzheimer's action

Several recent studies highlight the therapeutic potential of C. tinctorius, particularly hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA), which has been investigated in cancer, inflammation and ischemic conditions (Jaradat et al., 2024; Wang et al., 2025). These mechanisms have been further supported by more recent studies confirming activation of the Nrf2/HO-1 axis and inhibition of NF-κB signaling (Zhang et al., 2024; Luo et al., 2025). The anti-inflammatory effects of safflower methanolic extract (MEC) have been associated with activation of the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway and suppression of NF-κB signaling, reinforcing the mechanistic findings described above (Zhang & Zheng, 2010; Jun et al., 2011; Zhang et al., 2024).

Safflower oil, rich in linoleic acid (with anti-inflammatory action on bone tissue), acts by moderating the formation of prostanoids, reducing bone loss induced by ovariectomy and favoring the intestinal absorption of calcium (Bae et al., 2002). Studies have shown that safflower seed powder is effective in inhibiting bone loss associated with estrogen deficiency in animal models (Bae et al., 2002; Asgarpanah & Kazemivash, 2013; Asgary et al., 2012). More recent investigations have further demonstrated the involvement of the RANKL/OPG axis in the osteoprotective effects of HSYA (Kuai et al., 2024).

In TCM, C. tinctorius has been traditionally used for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Experimental results indicate that C. tinctorius leaf powder can reduce amyloid beta (Aβ) peptide load and improve cognitive dysfunction in APP/PS1 transgenic mice. These effects are attributed to the modulation of excessive astrocyte activation, which points to a potential neuroprotective effect and use as a functional food in the prevention or alleviation of AD-associated dementia (Zhang et al., 2021). Furthermore, the plant's seeds have also demonstrated positive effects on memory in experimental models of the disease (Kim et al., 2019; Jing et al., 2026). More recent mechanistic studies have also demonstrated activation of DAF-16/FOXO and proteostasis pathways, supporting neuroprotective effects (Jing et al., 2026).

3.4 Other uses and medications

Safflower-based herbal products (Tong et al., 2021), with Danhong injection standing out — composed mostly of C. tinctorius and Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge— as one of the best-selling drugs in TCM (Li et al., 2019). Also, the safflower aqueous extract is used as an intravenous injection to treat cardiovascular diseases clinically (Turgumbayeva et al., 2018). The use of soothing and revitalizing safflower compresses has also been reported (Wu et al., 2021).

GuHong injection, composed of safflower and N-acetyl-L-glutamine (NAG), has been identified as an ally in the treatment of cerebrovascular diseases, such as ischemic stroke (Wang et al., 2023). There are also reports in the literature on a medicine based on safflower and peach pits, widely used in TCM for the treatment of liver fibrosis (Huang et al., 2023).

Among other uses, in Thailand, the aqueous extract of the plant's flowers is traditionally used to intensify hair color (Delshad et al., 2018), in addition to inhibiting the enzyme 5α-reductase, stimulating hair growth in mice (Kumar et al., 2012; Junlatat & Sripanidkulchai, 2014). Furthermore, safflower oleosomes are indicated as therapeutic agents in the field of dermatology, and clinical research in humans is necessary to determine their efficacy and safety (Patel et al., 2023).

Historically reported uses include the formulation of safflower eye drops, which were described as beneficial in reducing myopia, particularly in children (Wang & Yili, 1985). However, contemporary controlled clinical evidence supporting this indication remains limited. Furthermore, earlier reports indicated that safflower was described as having purgative and diaphoretic properties and as an alexipharmic agent (Weiss, 1971). In Unani medicine, preparations derived from safflower seeds, such as Twarishe Qhurtum, have traditionally been used as laxatives. These uses reflect traditional medical practices and warrant further scientific evaluation.

Given its nutritional and health-promoting properties, safflower has been increasingly used in products such as functional beverages, skin lotions, tablets, and dietary supplements (Cheng et al., 2024). Despite the widespread clinical use of safflower-based formulations in China and other Asian countries, high-quality randomized controlled trials are still necessary to confirm efficacy and safety in broader populations.

4 Bioactive compounds

More than 200 secondary metabolites have been identified in C. tinctorius, encompassing flavonoids, quinochalcones, alkaloids, polyacetylenes, lignans, phenolic acids, terpenoids and steroids. Recent advances in analytical platforms, including Ultra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (UHPLC–MS/MS), metabolomics and transcriptomic approaches, have refined the structural characterization and functional understanding of these compounds (Liang & Wang, 2022; Xian et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2024; Zhu et al., 2025).

Flavonoids and quinochalcones are considered the main bioactive constituents of C. tinctorius, and recent investigations have significantly advanced the understanding of their structural diversity and molecular mechanisms of action. These compounds, particularly HSYA and related quinochalcone C-glycosides, have been shown to modulate key signaling pathways such as PI3K/Akt, NF-κB, MAPK and PPARγ, underlying their reported anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective, antifibrotic and metabolic regulatory effects (Xian et al., 2022; Yang et al., 2026; Zhao et al., 2025; Zhu et al., 2025). In addition, advances in metabolomic and transcriptomic analyses have clarified the biosynthetic regulation of flavonoid pathways in safflower, highlighting the influence of environmental factors and transcriptional control on bioactive compound accumulation (Wang et al., 2024; Zeng et al., 2022).

In addition to phenolic and quinochalcone compounds, chromatographic analyses of safflower extracts have revealed a diverse profile of volatile and lipophilic constituents, including fatty acids, aldehydes, terpenoids and sterols. A representative GC–MS profile reported in the literature is presented in Table 3 (Abbasi-Maleki & Mousavi, 2017), illustrating the diversity of low-molecular-weight compounds detected under specific extract conditions.

Table 3
Representative GC–MS profile of a safflower extract.

No.	Compound	(%)	No.	Compound	(%)
1	Hexanoic acid	0.17	23	Humulan-1,6-dien-3-ol	0.16
2	Octanoic acid	0.11	24	Docosane	1.15
3	Anethole	0.28	25	Trans-4,4-dimethyl-2-hexene	0.76
4	1,6,10 -dodecatrien-3-ol, 3,7,11-trimethyl	0.36	26	Vinyl ether hexadecal	4.17
5	Dodecanoic acid	1.01	27	9-octadecenoic acid	0.24
6	Tetradecanal	0.21	28	Palmitin, 2-mono	3.67
7	Hexadecanal	0.92	29	Tridecane	0.43
8	Tetradecanoic acid	2.4	30	Trifluoroacetic acid, n- octadecyl ester	1.06
9	P- allyltoluene	1.48	31	9,12-octadecadienoic acid	0.89
10	2-methylindene	0.52	32	Octadecadienoic acid, 9,10-epoxy-, isopropyl	0.55
11	Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone	1.00	33	Benzene, (2-methyl-1-propenyl)	0.22
12	Pentadecanoic acid	0.54	34	14-Tricosenyl formate	0.26
13	Neophytadiene	0.14	35	Vitamin E	0.62
14	Palmitic acid, methyl ester	0.25	36	14-beta-h-pregnane	0.31
15	8-octadecenal	0.17	37	Campesterol	0.39
16	Hexadecanoic acid	19.88	38	Stigmasterol	8.15
17	Heptadecanoic acid	0.20	39	Borane, diethylmethyl	0.19
18	Phytol	0.57	40	ã-Sitosterol	9.54
19	Linolenic acid, methyl ester	10.91	41	Beta- amyrin	3.35
20	Octadecanoic acid	3.62	42	Alpha- guaiene	0.39
21	2,3-dihydro-1H-cyclone	2.04	43	2,3-dihydro-1H- cyclone defer biphenylene	2.04
22	Methyl comate E	3.08	44	Hop-22(29)-en-3beta-ol	5.40

• Adapted from Abbasi-Maleki & Mousavi (2017).

Although such GC–MS-based profiling provides valuable information on extract complexity, current research increasingly emphasizes phenolic compounds, quinochalcones and transcriptionally regulated flavonoids as the principal contributors to the biological and functional properties of safflower.

Alkaloids, particularly serotonin derivatives, represent an important class of nitrogen-containing metabolites identified in safflower flowers and seeds. Recent studies have expanded their structural characterization and functional relevance, highlighting their antioxidant properties and potential regulatory roles in oxidative stress and inflammatory pathways (Xian et al., 2022; Zhu et al., 2025).

In addition to alkaloids, safflower flowers are rich in flavonoid glycosides and quinochalcone pigments, including carthamin, HSYA, safflomin derivatives and related C-glycosides. These compounds are primarily responsible for the characteristic coloration of the petals and are strongly associated with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and metabolic regulatory effects (Xian et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2024; Yang et al., 2026).

Polyphenolic compounds, including phenolic acids and flavonols, contribute significantly to both the sensory properties and biological activity of safflower extracts. Recent compositional and metabolomic analyses have confirmed the presence of gallic, chlorogenic and syringic acids, as well as luteolin and quercetin derivatives, particularly in floral tissues and seeds (Zeng et al., 2022; Ye et al., 2024).

Other secondary metabolites such as polyacetylenes, triterpenes and sterols have also been identified in different plant organs. While earlier phytochemical studies characterized these compounds structurally, current research increasingly explores their contribution to bioactivity and metabolic regulation (Zhang et al., 2024; Zhu et al., 2025).

Seed oil constituents, including tocopherols, phytosterols and unsaturated fatty acids (notably linoleic and oleic acids), further enhance the functional profile of safflower. Recent studies have emphasized their antioxidant activity and roles in lipid metabolism modulation (Hou et al., 2024; Cheng et al., 2024; Alimi et al., 2022).

The integrated phytochemical profile of safflower highlights the coexistence of phenolic, quinochalcone, and lipophilic compounds with complementary biological functions. In particular, flavonoids, quinochalcones, unsaturated fatty acids, tocopherols, and phytosterols have been consistently associated with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and metabolic regulatory effects. The main bioactive groups and their reported biological activities are summarized in Table 4.

Table 4
Safflower bioactive compounds, chemical classes and main reported biological effects.

Compound / Group	Chemical class	Part of the plant	Biological effects	References
Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA)	Quinochalcone C-glycoside	Flowers	Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, cardiovascular protector and neuroprotector	Xian et al. (2022); Yang et al. (2026); Zhao et al. (2025)
Safflomin A, B, C	Quinochalcones C-glycosides	Flowers	Antioxidant, anti-aggregation platelet, metabolic modulator	Xian et al. (2022); Zhang et al. (2024)
Carthamin	Anthraquinone pigment	Flowers	Natural dye, antioxidant and antitumor potential	Ren et al. (2020); Rodríguez-Félix et al. (2021)
Linoleic (ù-6) and oleic (ù-9) acid	Unsaturated fatty acids	Seeds / oil	Reduction of total cholesterol, improvement of insulin sensitivity, anti-inflammatory action	Hou et al. (2024); Ruyvaran et al. (2022)
Tocopherols (vitamin E)	Fat-soluble phenols	Oil	Lipid antioxidant, stabilization of cell membranes	Hou et al. (2024); Cheng et al. (2024)
Phytosterols	Plant sterols	Oil / seeds	Reduction of intestinal cholesterol absorption	Hou et al. (2024);
Flavonoids (kaempferol, quercetin)	Flavonols/ polyphenols	Flowers and seeds	Antioxidant, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory	Adamska & Biernacka (2021); Ren et al. (2020)
Safflower polysaccharides	Heteropolysaccharides	Flowers / roots	Immunomodulatory, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory	Zhang et al. (2023)

As shown in Table 4, quinochalcones and flavonoids represent the most extensively studied bioactive classes in safflower, largely due to their well-characterized antioxidant and anti-inflammatory mechanisms. HSYA, in particular, has been investigated in cardiovascular, hepatic and metabolic models, where it modulates signaling pathways such as PI3K/Akt, NF-κB and PPARγ (Yang et al., 2026; Zhao et al., 2025; Zhu et al., 2025).

Lipophilic constituents, including unsaturated fatty acids, tocopherols, and phytosterols, further contribute to the functional profile of safflower oil. These compounds are associated with lipid metabolism modulation, reduction of oxidative stress, and improvement of cardiovascular markers, reinforcing the nutraceutical relevance of safflower-derived products (Hou et al., 2024; Cheng et al., 2024).

Despite recent advances in the chemical and functional characterization of safflower, significant gaps remain that warrant further investigation. Comparative studies across genotypes, cultivation regions, and extraction methods can elucidate the quantitative and qualitative variations of bioactive compounds, especially quinochalcones and flavonoids. Correlating the phytochemical profile and biological responses remains a challenge, requiring integrated approaches of metabolomics, cellular bioassays, and clinical trials to demonstrate the mechanisms of action and bioavailability of key compounds, such as HSYA.

Furthermore, there is potential to explore the technological use of safflower oil and extracts in functional food matrices, such as emulsions, supplements and fortified products, considering aspects of stability, sensoriality and synergy between compounds.

5 Conclusion

Based on a narrative review of the literature, it was possible to determine that safflower presents a rich and diverse phytochemical composition. The evidence gathered demonstrates that its oil and bioactive constituents exhibit promising functional properties, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hypolipidemic, antidiabetic, osteoprotective, and neuroprotective effects, supported by the modulation of key molecular pathways such as Nrf2/HO-1, NF-κB and PI3K/Akt.

These findings reinforce its potential as a nutraceutical and functional ingredient in strategies aimed at preventing chronic noncommunicable diseases and promoting health. However, although the preclinical evidence is substantial, most available data are derived from in vitro and animal studies.

This work contributed to the field of food science and phytotherapy by integrating, updated information on the composition, mechanisms of action and physiological effects of safflower. Nevertheless, further well-designed randomized, controlled clinical trials are required, as well as studies addressing pharmacokinetics, bioavailability and extract standardization. In addition, investigations considering the influence of genetic, environmental and processing factors on the compound variability are essential to validate and optimize the safe and effective use of safflower in industrial and therapeutic applications.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank the Paraná Rural Development Institute IAPAR-EMATER (IDR - Paraná) for the infrastructure and the Paraná State Secretariat for Science, Technology and Higher Education (SETI) for granting the scholarships.

Data Availability Statement

This article did not generate or analyze any new data. Data sharing is not applicable.

• Cite as:
  Furquim, C. M. P., Santana, J. M., Ramos, M. M., Sesso, P. P., Marquito, K. S., Carneiro, N. M., Kitzberger, C. S. G., & Alves, D. S. (2026). Bioactive potential of safflower: nutritional and functional aspects. Brazilian Journal of Food Technology, 29, e2025134. https://doi.org/10.1590/1981-6723.1342025
• Funding:
  None.

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Edited by

• Associate Editor:
  Fabiana Galland.

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  17 Aug 2026
• Date of issue
  2026

History

• Received
  14 Nov 2025
• Accepted
  02 Apr 2026