Deciphering the cooling history of the garzon massif: a body that records variable exhumation patterns?

Abstract

The Northern Andes in Colombia are involved in a continuous mountain-building process along an active subduction zone, resulting in significant Cenozoic compression, leading to substantial Neogene shortening and topographic development. It is believed that, during the Miocene, some major geological structures reached their present-day elevation; this is the case of the Garzón Massif, an orographic barrier between the Middle Magdalena Valley and the Putumayo Basins. Some studies have been performed in order to understand the exhumation history of the Massif; however, whether the cooling process was slow or fast, and whether this occurs continuously or episodically, as well as the possible influence of faults on exhumation, is a matter of discussion. Using new apatite fission track thermochronology in combination with published data, we aimed to reconstruct the cooling history of the Massif. Our results show that cooling was asynchronous, with fault-bounded blocks cooling independently starting around 70 Ma. Cooling of the southernmost block (B6) occurs during Maastrichtian (~4.9°C/Myr), in blocks B2, B3, and B5 in Eocene (~5.3–5.6°C/Myr), and in blocks B1 and B5 from Late Oligocene to Miocene (~9°C/Myr and ~23°C/Myr, respectively). Faster cooling rates from the Miocene onward may be related to the accretion of the Panama-Choco block against the continent.

KEYWORDS:
Apatite fission track dating; QtQt modeling; Northern Andes; cooling rates; relief

1 INTRODUCTION

Orogenies take place at continental convergent boundaries within subduction or continental collision settings (Pease et al., 2008). In subduction zones, for instance, orogeny occurs when the overriding plate experiences compression (Rolland et al., 2016). Whether subduction leads to compression depends on various factors such as the rate of plate convergence and the level of coupling between the plates (global tectonics). Thus, the development of mountain ranges is influenced by the interplay of tectonics along with climatic and surface processes, resulting in compression-related deformation and surface uplift (Beaumont et al., 1994; DeCelles et al., 2009; Hantke & Scheidegger, 1999; Keller & Pinter, 2002; Stalder et al., 2020). The orogenic systems in North and South America are especially distinguished compared to other plate boundaries linked with subduction zones due to their significant amounts of crustal shortening and thickening (DeCelles et al., 2009), making them an ideal location for investigating topographic growth and exhumation processes.

Topographic growth of the Northern Andes may have started during the Upper Cretaceous—Paleogene (Bayona et al., 2013; Gómez et al., 2005; Siravo et al., 2018), as a result of the interaction among the Farallon and South American plates (Cediel, 2019; Villagómez & Spikings, 2013). This interaction led to significant shortening and the development of thin-skinned and thick-skinned deformation (Caballero et al., 2013; Mora et al., 2010; Parra et al., 2009; Sánchez et al., 2012). These deformational patterns vary along strike, resulting in the establishment of diverse topographic configurations (Ramos & Aleman, 2000).

For instance, the Colombian Andes is the only region where the orogen is divided into three distinct parallel ranges: the Western, Central, and Eastern Cordilleras (Gómez et al., 2020). These cordilleras contain a diverse assemblage of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks (Bayona et al., 2008; Bayona et al., 2013; Cooper et al., 1995; Gómez et al., 2005), with prominent basement Massifs, such as the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, the Santander, Quetame and the Garzón Massifs (Cediel et al., 2003; Horton et al., 2010b; Kroonenberg, 1982; Mora et al., 2006; Ordóñez-Carmona et al., 2006; Ramos, 2009), which function as ancient, stable blocks that record uplift and deformation along the north Andean chain (i.e., Anderson et al., 2016; Calderon-Diaz et al., 2024; Pérez-Consuegra et al., 2021; van der Lelij et al., 2016; Van der Wiel, 1991; Velandia et al., 2021).

Therefore, some studies have been performed along the Garzón Massif (i.e., Anderson et al., 2016; Calderon-Diaz et al., 2024; Pérez-Consuegra et al., 2021; Van der Wiel, 1991) aiming to understand deformation and topographic growth in southeast Colombia. Some researchers suggest that exhumation in the Massif began during the Middle Miocene, around 14–9 Myr (Van der Wiel, 1991), throughout a slow monotonic cooling pattern over the last 10 Myr (Pérez-Consuegra et al., 2021). In contrast, others argue that major exhumation occurred after ca. 6 Myr, at high rates (Anderson et al., 2016; Saeid et al., 2017). Thus, the exhumation history of the Garzón Massif remains a subject of debate, with ongoing discussions surrounding the rates (fast versus slow), as well as the timing of significant cooling events. This study presents 15 new apatite fission track (AFT) data collected within the Garzón Massif. The objective of this research is to discriminate possible asynchronous exhumation, variations in cooling rates, and the influence of fault zones along different tectonic blocks in the Garzon massif. Our findings may offer insights into the tectonic framework of the northern Andean region.

2 GEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND

The North Andean block is a segment of the compressional Andes Mountain range. It encompasses regions of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and northern Peru. It is bordered to the west by the Nazca subduction zone and Panama block, by the South Caribbean Deformed Belt to the northwest, and by the Boconó Fault and East Andean Fault System to the east (Pennington, 1981).

The Northern Andes hold geological evidence of advancing fold-thrust systems from the Cenozoic era (Bayona et al., 2021; Caballero et al., 2013; Gómez et al., 2005; Jaillard et al., 2000; Mora et al., 2010; Parra et al., 2009). In Colombia, for example, the Central Cordillera marks the thrust front from the latest Cretaceous to Paleocene period (Gómez et al., 2005; Parra et al., 2012; Villagómez & Spikings, 2013; Villagómez et al., 2011; Villamizar-Escalante et al., 2021), while the Eastern Cordillera represents a more recent contractional belt that reactivated a Mesozoic rift system throughout both thin-skinned ramp-flat thrust systems and thick-skinned basement configurations (Caballero et al., 2013; Horton et al., 2020; Kammer et al., 2020; Mora et al., 2006; Mora et al., 2010; Parra et al., 2009; Pérez-Consuegra et al., 2021; Sánchez et al., 2012; Sarmiento-Rojas et al., 2006).

The Garzón Massif represents the southernmost segment of the Eastern Cordillera and constitutes the largest exposed Precambrian block in the Northern Andes region (Fig. 1; Ibañez-Mejia et al., 2011; Ibañez-Mejia et al., 2015). It is unconformably overlain by Jurassic volcaniclastic rocks of the Saldaña Formation (Fig. 2; Bayona et al., 2020; Rodríguez-Garcia et al., 2016) and the Aptian-Albian Caballos Formation (Fig. 3; Calderon-Diaz et al., 2024 and the references therein).

Figure 1.
Map providing a general overview of the study region, highlighting the sedimentary basins discussed in the text. Yellow star represents the study area. Red square represents the area of Fig. 2.

Figure 2.
Map displaying the thermochronological data collected across the Garzón Massif.

Figure 3.
Map illustrating the lithostratigraphic units of the Garzón Massif, along with the locations of the samples taken in this study. (1) Cenozoic sediments and Cretaceous rocks; (2) Jurassic intrusives; (3) Jurassic–Triassic volcaniclastic sequences and Paleozoic sedimentary rocks; (4) Vergel granulites; (5) Guapotón–Mancagua gneiss; (6) Recreo gneiss; (7) Las Margaritas migmatites; and (8) Minas migmatites. B1–B6 denote the fault-bounded blocks analyzed in this study.

This basement block hosts Paleozoic metasedimentary rocks as well as Proterozoic granulites and gneisses with zircon U–Pb ages ranging from 1500 to 900 Myr (Horton et al., 2010a; Ibañez-Mejia et al., 2011; Ibañez-Mejia et al., 2015; Moyano-Nieto et al., 2022), which has been informally subdivided into five lithostratigraphic units (Fig. 3): (i) the Las Margaritas migmatites, dominated by metasedimentary gneisses and migmatites; (ii) the El Vergel granulites, which are predominantly composed of felsic granulites and garnetiferous paragneisses with subordinate mafic granulite; (iii) the El Recreo gneiss; (iv) The Minas migmatites; and (v) the Guapotón-Mancagua orthogneiss, a biotite-amphibole gneiss of granitic composition. The first three units are also collectively known as the “Garzón Group” (Ibañez-Mejia et al., 2011; Jimenez et al., 2006).

The Garzón Massif is bordered by the Middle Magdalena Valley Basin (the Neiva Sub-basin) and the Putumayo Basin (Fig. 2). The basement of the Putumayo and Neiva basins consists of crystalline rocks ranging in age from Grenvillian to Jurassic, which are overlain by two significant sedimentary megasequences (Cooper et al., 1995). The first megasequence is primarily composed of marine deposits, spanning from Aptian to Paleocene, while the second is predominantly continental ranging from Eocene to Miocene (Borrero et al., 2012; Cooper et al., 1995; Mora et al., 1998). These two megasequences are separated by a regional unconformity (Fig. 4; Rossello et al., 2008; Saeid et al., 2017).

Figure 4.
Generalized Stratigraphic columns of the Neiva Sub-basin (UMV) and Putumayo basins.

3 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Apatite fission track dating

AFT analysis is one of the most applied thermochronometer analyses to monitor the low-temperature evolution of the uppermost 3–5 km of the crust (Malusà & Fitzgerald, 2019; Tagami & O’Sullivan, 2005). AFT dating is useful for deducing the thermal evolution of a rock, providing insights into both the age and duration of cooling occurrences.

Like other radiometric dating techniques, the fission-track age is a function of the number of fission tracks (“daughter product”) in a mineral grain, the ²³⁸U concentration (“parent nuclide”), and the total and spontaneous fission decay constants of ²³⁸U. In conventional fission-track analysis, like the external detector method, induced track products of fission in a specific proportion of ²³⁵U are created and measured in an adjacent track recorder after neutron irradiation (Gleadow, 1981). Then, ²³⁸U is calculated using its virtually constant ratio to ²³⁵U (Steiger & Jäger, 1977), with ²³⁸U being used to calculate the fission-track age.

We collected 15 samples from the Garzón Massif, aiming to gather specimens representing the three distinct rock units composing the Massif as identified by Jimenez et al. (2006) and Kroonenberg (1982). Sample-specific location is detailed in Table 1 and Fig. 3. Samples were processed using standard techniques, including crushing, sieving, magnetic, and heavy liquid concentration (Kohn et al., 2019) at the thermochronology laboratory in the Universidad Pedagógica y Tecnológica de Colombia, UPTC. Apatites were then mounted on epoxy, polished, and etched with 5.5M HNO₃ for 20 s at 20°C. Low-uranium muscovite was then used as the external detector, and CN5 was used as a dosimeter to detect the irradiation neutron fluence. Then, the samples were irradiated with thermal neutrons in the reactor at the Radiation Center of Oregon State University, USA, with a stable nominal neutron fluence of 9 × 10¹⁵ n cm^-2. Following irradiation, all mica detectors were detached from the mounts and etched with 40% HF at 20°C for 45 min. The results obtained are detailed in Table 1.

Table 1.
Apatite fission track data from the Garzón Massif.

Sample	Long.	Lat.	Unit	nG	∑Ns	∑Ni	Nd	ρd (E+06)	Mean Dpar	AFT (Myr)	(±2σ) AFT	No. track	MTL (µm)	Error MTL
CPB01	-75.89	1.6839	Garzón complex	13	38	1,129	6,717	1.38	1.68	8.26	3.3	30	13.52	1.12
CPB02	-75.89	1.6584	Garzón complex	20	126	3,153	6,681	1.37	1.59	9.74	2.1	50	13.52	1.16
CPB03	-75.91	1.6310	Garzón complex	12	35	848	6,645	1.37	1.76	10.1	4.3	34	13.41	1.32
CPB04	-75.90	1.5822	Garzón complex	21	60	1,559	6,609	1.36	1.9	9.3	2.9	50	13.76	1.48
CPB05	-75.72	1.5590	Garzón complex	8	22	380	6,573	1.35	1.7	13.9	7.8	20	14.14	1.16
CPB06	-75.71	1.6070	Garzón complex	18	54	1,112	6,537	1.34	1.6	11.6	3.9	44	14.44	1.09
CPB07	-75.68	1.6323	Garzón complex	11	28	715	6,501	1.34	1.71	9.3	3.0	30	13.16	1.31
CPB08	-75.94	1.5109	Garzón complex	20	46	1,058	6,465	1.33	1.54	10.3	3.8	20	13.46	1.38
CPB09	-75.80	1.7997	Guapotón gneiss	14	37	1,261	6,393	1.31	2.2	6.89	2.8	30	13.58	1.32
CPB10	-75.75	1.8000	Garzón complex	11	49	1,001	6,429	1.32	2.2	11.5	4.1	30	14.47	1.18
CPB11	-75.79	1.7607	Garzón complex	15	43	1,374	6,357	1.31	2.3	7.29	2.7	50	13.23	1.39
CPB12	-75.74	1.7484	Garzón complex	11	27	658	6,322	1.30	2.3	9.49	4.6	32	13.97	1.16
CPB13	-75.88	1.5505	Garzón complex	17	55	1,084	6,286	1.29	1.7	11.6	3.9	34	13.89	1.34
CPB14	-75.83	1.5252	Garzón complex	9	19	523	6,250	1.28	2.1	8.27	5.0	25	14.00	1.30
CPB15	-75.61	1.7239	Garzón complex	13	36	860	6,214	1.28	1.8	9.53	4.0	43	14.12	1.26

• nG: number of grains; N_s: spontaneous tracks; N_i: induced tracks; ρ_d: dosimeter density; MTL: confined mean track lengths projected with respect to the c-axis.

3.2 Inverse thermal modeling

Thermal history for each sample was reconstructed using QtQT software developed by Gallagher (2012), which utilizes a Bayesian transdimensional Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) inversion method to analyze data. Each simulation was performed under specific MCMC parameters, including a burn-in phase of 100,000, a post-burn-in phase of 100,000, and a thinning set to 1 to control the number of interactions in the sampling chain. We carried out simulations until we obtained results that met the acceptable criteria proposed by Gallagher (2012) for time and temperatures, ranging from 0.2 to 0.5, while for birth and death rates, values were less than 0.002.

We have identified three different constraints. These are based on intrusion ages and stratigraphic and structural relationships (Bayona et al., 2020; i.e., Calderon-Diaz et al., 2024; Ibañez-Mejia et al., 2011; Ibañez-Mejia et al., 2015; Jimenez et al., 2006; Rodríguez-Garcia et al., 2016; and Saeid et al., 2017). (i) The Garzón Massif is composed of Paleozoic metasedimentary rocks and Proterozoic granulites and gneisses, with zircon U-Pb ages spanning 1500 to 900 Ma (Ibañez-Mejia et al., 2011; Ibañez-Mejia et al., 2015). Zircon typically crystallizes between 900 and 950°C (Klein & Eddy, 2023 and the references therein) and cools below its U-Pb closure temperature of approximately 750°C (Cherniak & Watson, 2001). Accordingly, a constraint of 1100 ± 100 Ma, with temperatures of 750 ± 100°C was considered. (ii) The Saldaña Formation, with reported U-Pb ages ranging from 189 to 173 Ma (Rodríguez-Garcia et al., 2016), unconformably overlies some units of the Garzón Massif. This allows us to define a third constraint of 180 ± 15 Ma with temperatures of 20 ± 10°C. (iii) Additionally, Calderon-Diaz et al. (2024) proposed that the Garzón Massif was exposed during the Lower Cretaceous and served as a source area for the Caballos Formation deposition. Based on this evidence, a final constraint of 110 ± 10 Ma and temperatures between 20 ± 5°C were considered.

We conduct multi-sample analysis by grouping samples within coherent structural blocks (where there are no clear faults; Fig. 3) to quantitatively constrain a single regional cooling history common to all samples within a structural block. We named the blocks from west to east as follows: B1, which includes sample CPB09; B2 with samples CPB01, CPB02, CPB03, CPB10, CPB11, and CPB12; B3 containing samples CP04 and CB08; B4 holding samples CB13 and CB15; B5 comprising samples CBB06, CB07, and CBB14; and B6 with sample CPB05.

We interpret the “expected model” from the QTQt modeling as an ensemble of thermal histories that defines the range of accepted models based on a posterior probability distribution (Gallagher, 2012), assuming a surface temperature of 20 ± 5°C. To assess along-strike variations within the Garzón Massif, our models were compared with thermal history data from the northern (Anderson et al., 2016; Calderon-Diaz et al., 2024; Van der Wiel, 1991) and southern segments (Pérez-Consuegra et al., 2021) of the study area. Thermochronological data for these northern and southern segments of the Garzón Massif are provided in Table 2. However, none of these data fall into the blocks that were sampled in the present research.

Table 2.
Published thermochronological data for the Garzón Massif.

Sample	ZHe	Error ZHe	Source
34053Gz-z1	60.3	0.3	Calderon-Diaz et al. (2024)
34053Gz-z2	87.8	0.6	Calderon-Diaz et al. (2024)
34053Gz-z4	71.7	0.5	Calderon-Diaz et al. (2024)
34055Gz-z2	94.4	0.9	Calderon-Diaz et al. (2024)
34055Gz-z4	115.5	1.2	Calderon-Diaz et al. (2024)
Sample	AHe	Error AHe	Source
FLOR18-550	7.6	0.1	Pérez-Consuegra et al. (2021)
FLOR18-1050	9.7	0.2	Pérez-Consuegra et al. (2021)
FLOR18-1515	10.6	0.2	Pérez-Consuegra et al. (2021)
RC-18	9.1	0.1	Pérez-Consuegra et al. (2021)
RC-20	7.9	0.2	Pérez-Consuegra et al. (2021)
RC-24	18.6	0.4	Pérez-Consuegra et al. (2021)
RC-008	4.4	0.2	Pérez-Consuegra et al. (2021)
SIB18-1960	5.6	1.5	Pérez-Consuegra et al. (2021)
SIB18-2260	6.3	0.3	Pérez-Consuegra et al. (2021)
SIB18-2180P	5.6	0.2	Pérez-Consuegra et al. (2021)
SIB18-2180V	6.9	0.2	Pérez-Consuegra et al. (2021)
MOC 18-06	12	0.3	Pérez-Consuegra et al. (2021)
MOC18-18	10.4	1.2	Pérez-Consuegra et al. (2021)
MOC 18-07	12.8	0.5	Pérez-Consuegra et al. (2021)
MOC18-17	10.6	0.4	Pérez-Consuegra et al. (2021)
34053Gz-a2	23.3	0.4	Calderon-Diaz et al. (2024)
34053Gz-a3	20	0.2	Calderon-Diaz et al. (2024)
34053Gz-a4	24.6	0.2	Calderon-Diaz et al. (2024)
Sample	AFT	Error AFT	Source
MW59	10.1	2.1	Van der Wiel (1991)
MW58	11.2	1.4	Van der Wiel (1991)
MW57	13.9	2.3	Van der Wiel (1991)
MW56	11	3.2	Van der Wiel (1991)
MW54	9.2	2	Van der Wiel (1991)
MW53	13.9	7.3	Van der Wiel (1991)
SK490	11.8	1.8	Van der Wiel (1991)
MW74	12.2	1.6	Van der Wiel (1991)
MW73	10.1	2.3	Van der Wiel (1991)
MW72	11.7	2.3	Van der Wiel (1991)
MW75	13.6	12.3	Van der Wiel (1991)
MW76	10.2	1.2	Van der Wiel (1991)
JF3	11.1	1.5	Van der Wiel (1991)
JF1	12.1	1.5	Van der Wiel (1991)
34055Gz	12.1	1.8	Calderon-Diaz et al. (2024)
GM01	3.6	1.8	Anderson et al. (2016)
GM02	3.9	2.4	Anderson et al. (2016)
GM03	4.6	1.3	Anderson et al. (2016)
GM04	5.8	1.8	Anderson et al. (2016)
GM05-1	12.2	15.5	Anderson et al. (2016)
GM05-2	5.0	1.6	Anderson et al. (2016)
GM06	5.0	2.2	Anderson et al. (2016)

4 RESULTS

4.1 New apatite fission-track ages

Fifteen apatite fission-track ages were obtained from Proterozoic rocks of the Garzón Massif. The AFT dating was conducted on 8–21 grains per sample, depending on the apatite recovery. Fourteen samples were collected from the Vergel Granulites unit of the Garzón Complex, yielding AFT ages ranging from 7.3 to 13.9 Myr with long mean track lengths exceeding 13 µm (from 13.16 ± 1.31 to 14.47 ± 1.18 µm) and mean Dpar values between 1.5 and 2.3 µm. Additionally, one sample (CPB09) was taken from the Guapotón gneiss, which has an AFT age of 6.9 ± 2.8 Myr, an MTL of 13.58 ± 1.32 µm, and a Dpar of 2.2 µm. Detailed AFT data for each sample are provided in Table 1.

4.2 Inverse thermal model

The modeling results for the interval from 120 Ma to the present are shown in Fig. 5, while the full thermal history back to the crystallization of the Proterozoic body is shown in Suppl. Mat. 1. The models show an overall history in which the Garzón Massif began to heat after the Albian, reaching temperatures between 200 and 300°C. However, the cooling history of individual blocks varies considerably in timing and rate.

Figure 5.
QTQt-derived expected thermal models for the distinct fault-bounded blocks within the Garzón Massif, for the 120Ma–present interval. The expected individual predictions of each sample from each block are shown adjacent to the corresponding thermal model.

For example, block B1 started to cool ca. 33 Ma, decreasing from about 310°C at a rate of ~8.8°C/Myr. Block B2 started cooling earlier, around 40 Ma, from an initial temperature of ~260°C, with a cooling rate of 5.3°C/Myr, and increasing to 7°C/Myr after ~14 Ma. Blocks B3 and B4 have similar thermal histories, starting to cool at ~50 Ma from an initial temperature of ~300°C, with a cooling rate of ca. 5.6°C/Myr. Block B5 started cooling later, around 20 Ma, from ~310°C at an accelerated rate of 23.6°C/Myr, but experienced a deceleration around 12 Ma, transitioning to a slower rate of 5°C/Myr. In contrast, Block B6 started cooling at 65 Ma, from an initial temperature close to 340°C, with a steady cooling rate of 4.9°C/Myr.

5 DISCUSSION

5.1 Massif Movement: independent blocks or unified body?

Most fault-bounded blocks exhibit AFT ages ranging from ca. 7 to 11 Myr, with the exception of block B6, the easternmost block, which presents a slightly older age (14 Myr). Moreover, all samples display long MTL >13 µm and exhibit unimodal track length distributions, indicating a complete reset of the thermochronometric system and consistent thermal conditions (Kohn et al., 2005; Powell et al., 2018; Vermeesch, 2019). Furthermore, the samples do not present a clear correlation between age and elevation or age and Dpar (Fig. 6).

Figure 6.
Scatterplots illustrating the correlation between: (A) altitude and AFT age and (B) Dpar and AFT age.

The similar AFT ages observed across the Garzón Massif might initially suggest a uniform uplift. However, detailed modeling reveals a more complex scenario, with fault-bounded blocks exhibiting significant variations in both the timing and rates of cooling (Figs. 5 and 7). Three distinct cooling events can be identified: (i) Block B6 began cooling during the Maastrichtian at a rate of ~4.9°C/Myr; (ii) during the Eocene, blocks B2, B3, and B5 initiated cooling at comparable rates ranging from 5.3 to 5.6°C/Myr; and (iii) during the Late Oligocene to Miocene, the remaining blocks, B1 and B5, experienced rapid cooling at rates of ~9 and ~23°C/Myr, respectively. These variations suggest that fault reactivation caused the massif to behave as a series of independently moving blocks, a phenomenon observed in other intrusive bodies (i.e., Hendriks et al., 2010; Shin, 2012).

Figure 7.
Summarized thermal history models for the different fault-bounded blocks of the Garzón Massif over the past 120 Myr.

In addition, there may have been an acceleration of cooling during the Miocene, as evidenced by (i) block B5, which started to cool around 20 Ma at rates about five times higher than those of blocks B3, B4, and B6, and (ii) block B2, which showed a modest increase in cooling rate from 5.4 to 7°C/Myr around 14 Ma. By this time, however, blocks B2, B3, B4, and B6 had already reached temperatures below 100°C. Consequently, further changes in cooling rates for these blocks would not be fully captured in our models, which rely primarily on AFT data reflecting thermal histories within the partial annealing zone of apatite (60–120°C; Gleadow & Duddy, 1981; Reiners & Brandon, 2006).

To address this limitation, we incorporated single-grain AHe ages reported by Pérez-Consuegra et al. (2021) into our modeling, as these ages belong to some of the studied blocks. Specifically, we included sample RC-18 (mean AHe age: 9.1 ± 0.1 Ma) for block B2, and samples FLOR 18-550 (mean AHe age: 7.6 ± 0.1 Ma), RC-24 (mean AHe age: 18.6 ± 0.4 Ma), and FLOR 18-1050 (mean AHe age: 9.7 ± 0.2 Ma) for block B4. Results (Suppl. Mat. 2) reveal no significant changes in the history of block B2. In contrast, block B4 shows a notable change in slope around 16 Ma, indicating an acceleration in cooling during this period. Therefore, we propose a possible increase in cooling during the Miocene, ca. ~15 Ma, which likely drove greater uplift in the Garzón Massif.

5.2 Along-strike variations within the Garzón Massif

For the northern segment of the Garzón Massif, Van der Wiel (1991) reported AFT ages ranging from 10.1 to 13.6 Myr, with mean track lengths (MTL) > 14.4 µm. Calderon-Diaz et al. (2024) presented a single AFT age of 12.1 ± 1.8 Myr and three AHe ages ranging from ~20 to 23 Myr. Anderson et al. (2016) observed a broader range of AFT ages from ~3.6 to 12.2 Myr, with MTL values between 11.9 and 14.8 µm, with 87% of the data < 6 Myr. These studies agree that cooling and exhumation in the Garzón Massif were episodic rather than continuous and gradual.

For the central area (this study), cooling and exhumation were asynchronous and occurred at varying rates over time (section 5.2). The core of the massif (blocks B2, B3, and B4) cooled at a rate of ~5°C/Myr, while peripheral blocks (B1 and B5) experienced faster cooling starting in the late Oligocene. After ~15 Ma, cooling rates in these blocks ranged between 5 and 9°C/Myr.

In contrast, for the southern region, Pérez-Consuegra et al. (2021) documented AHe ages ranging from 7.6 to 18 Myr, with 83% of the data younger than ~11 Myr. They concluded that exhumation occurred within a slow, monotonic cooling process since ~11 Myr, at rates of 5–6°C/Myr (Fig. 8).

Figure 8.
Summarized thermal history models for the Garzón Massif over the past 15 Myr, incorporating published data from Anderson et al. (2016); Calderon-Diaz et al. (2024); and Perez-Consuegra et al. (2021).

Overall, the published data suggest that cooling and exhumation in the Garzón Massif were heterogeneous: slow and continuous in the south, but episodic and rapid in the north. This discrepancy suggests that the massif not only experienced variations across the strike but also along the strike. This behavior supports the idea that the massif was composed of independent moving blocks rather than functioning as a single body.

5.3 General tectonic framework

During the Aptian-Albian times, Colombia underwent a complex tectonic regime. The southern-western region was under a compressive setting, resulting in a gradual cooling event in the Central Cordillera at rates of 2–3°C/Myr (Villamizar-Escalante et al., 2021). This cooling episode was linked to the accretion of the Quebradagrande arc and the Arquía complex (120-110 Myr; Villagómez & Spikings, 2013; Villagómez et al., 2011), which is supported by the presence of high-pressure metamorphism along the area (128-120 Myr; Bustamante & Bustamante, 2019). Meanwhile, the southern-eastern region was characterized by an extensional tectonic environment, as evidenced by the deposition of the syn-extensional Caballos Formation along the Upper Magdalena Valley and Putumayo basins (Sarmiento-Rojas et al., 2006). During this period, the Garzón Massif was exposed at the surface, serving as a source for the sediments of the Caballos Formation (Calderon-Diaz et al., 2024).

During the upper Cretaceous, substantial uplift and erosional exhumation occurred along the Central Cordillera (i.e., Cardona et al., 2020; Parra et al., 2012; Villagómez & Spikings, 2013; Villamizar-Escalante et al., 2021). This exhumation event was driven by the collision and accretion of the Caribbean Large Igneous Province (Cediel, 2019; Villagómez & Spikings, 2013). The resulting topographic growth of the Central Cordillera led to the development of an eastward foreland basin system, encompassing the present-day Magdalena Valley basin, the Eastern Cordillera, and the Llanos Basin (Cooper et al., 1995; Gómez et al., 2005).

Topographic loading during contraction likely enhanced subsidence in the foreland, leading to the burial of basement highs such as the Floresta and Garzón Massifs, which had functioned as paleo-highs until the Early Cretaceous (Calderon-Diaz et al., 2024; Sarmiento-Rojas et al., 2006; van der Lelij et al., 2016). Evidence for the burial of the Garzón Massif includes (i) the deposition of the Cenomanian-Santonian Villeta Group in both the western Neiva sub-basin and the eastern Putumayo basin, suggesting these basins were interconnected (Mora Bohorquez et al., 2010; Sarmiento-Rojas et al., 2006); and (ii) provenance and stratigraphic evidence from the La Tabla Formation, indicating that sediments in the Neiva sub-basin originated from the Amazon craton (Bayona, 2018; Calderon-Diaz et al., 2024; Carvajal-Torres et al., 2022). Additional support comes from our modeling results (Figs. 5 and 7), which show that all blocks experienced heating (probably due to burial) until ca. 70 Ma when block B6 began to cool.

From Campanian through the early Miocene, the accretion of the Dagua-Piñón and San Jacinto terranes along the Colombian Andes led to a major cooling and compressional deformation event in the region (Cediel, 2019). During the Paleocene, the Central Cordillera underwent rapid cooling and erosion, which have been extensively documented through diverse provenance indicators and thermochronological data (Gómez et al., 2005; Nie et al., 2010; Villagómez et al., 2011). Subsequently, deformation and exhumation migrated from the Central Cordillera to the Eastern Cordillera (Horton et al., 2020; Mora et al., 2010; Parra et al., 2012). Thermochronological, tectonostratigraphic, and provenance analyses have documented the exhumation of the Eastern Cordillera since the Middle Paleocene (Caballero et al., 2013; Mora et al., 2010; Parra et al., 2009; Parra et al., 2012; Reyes-Harker et al., 2015; Siravo et al., 2018). For instance, exhumation was documented between 60 and 50 Myr along the Arcabuco and Los Cobardes anticlines (Parra et al., 2012; Reyes-Harker et al., 2015). Nevertheless, in the northern segment of the Eastern Cordillera, shortening commenced as early as the latest Maastrichtian along the Tablazo and Cocuy regions (Siravo et al., 2018). Interestingly, a comparable timing for the onset of cooling is observed in the southern segment of the Eastern Cordillera, as recorded by Block B6 (Fig. 5F).

Throughout the Eocene, exhumation and deformation continued along the Eastern Cordillera (Reyes-Harker et al., 2015). Cooling began between 50 and 35 Myr on the western flank of the Guaduas syncline (Parra et al., 2009) and persisted during the middle Eocene to early Oligocene along the Floresta Massif and in the Bogota Plateau (Mora et al., 2010; Parra et al., 2009; Ramirez-Arias et al., 2012). Similarly, the Garzón Massif was experiencing cooling and exhumation during the Eocene, as evidenced by thermochronological data from blocks B2, B3, and B4.

During the Late Eocene to Oligocene, the advancing thrust front and uplift of the Eastern Cordillera divided the previously continuous foreland basin into the eastern Llanos and western Middle Magdalena Valley basins (Gómez et al., 2005; Sánchez et al., 2012; Saylor et al., 2012). However, although most of the blocks of the Garzón massif experienced cooling during this period, they may not have uplifted sufficiently to separate the Upper Magdalena and Putumayo basins, which probably remained connected, as suggested by seismic data, which show a continuous thickness of preserved Paleogene sequences (Mora Bohorquez et al., 2010; Saeid et al., 2017).

Substantial exhumation occurred during the Miocene, marking the final stages of the Andean orogeny (i.e., Anderson et al., 2016; Bayona et al., 2008; Mora et al., 2010; Parra et al., 2009; Pérez-Consuegra et al., 2021; Siravo et al., 2018). This is evidenced by: (i) the absence of Miocene strata in the Eastern Cordillera (Bayona et al., 2008; Cooper et al., 1995; Sarmiento-Rojas et al., 2006), (ii) low Ro values (i.e., Ro = 0.27; Mora et al., 2008) from the uppermost preserved Oligocene units, (iii) the uplift of the Quetame Massif, beginning in the early Miocene (~20 Ma; Parra et al., 2009), (iv) increased exhumation rates along the Cocuy domain during the Middle Miocene (Siravo et al., 2018), and (v) accelerated cooling rates in the Garzón Massif (Calderon-Diaz et al., 2024; Pérez-Consuegra et al., 2021; this study), as evidenced by blocks B2 and B5, which started cooling at significantly faster rates (~9 to 23°C/Myr). This increase in cooling and exhumation coincides temporally with the approach and subsequent collision of the Chocó-Panamá Arc with the western continental margin (Cediel, 2019; Pardo-Trujillo et al., 2020). This event involved the initial tangential accretion of the Cañas Gordas terrane, followed by the collision of the El Paso-Baudó assemblage along the western margin of Cañas Gordas (Cediel, 2019). Furthermore, this significant uplift likely facilitated the separation of the Upper Magdalena and Putumayo sedimentary basins, establishing the Garzón Massif as a topographic barrier (Calderon-Diaz et al., 2024; Horton et al., 2020).

6 CONCLUSIONS

The AFT data, combined with previous studies, allow us to propose a comprehensive model of the thermal history and exhumation of the Garzón Massif. Our analysis shows that the Proterozoic massif cooled as distinct fault-bounded blocks rather than as a single cohesive unit. In particular, blocks B2, B3, and B4, which form the core of the massif, show a relatively uniform history, whereas the smaller peripheral blocks show markedly different cooling patterns. Cooling occurred in distinct phases. Block B6 started cooling in the Maastrichtian, while blocks B2, B3, and B4 started cooling in the Eocene, all at similar rates of ~5°C/Myr. This initial phase may be related to the accretion of the Dagua-Piñón and San Jacinto terranes. From the Miocene onward, cooling rates increased significantly, coinciding with the approach and collision of the Chocó-Panamá arc along the western margin.

Supplementary material

https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14770375

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge the funding provided by the Colombian Ministry of Science, Technology, and Innovation (MINCIENCIAS) and the National Hydrocarbons Agency (ANH) to the Pedagogical and Technological University of Colombia, under the codes: 110987780498 (Contract: 80748-233-2021) and 110993194496 (Contract: 80470-038-2023). The projects are titled “Geological Habitat, Prospectivity, Socio-Environmental and Economic Sustainability of Wet Gas (LPG)” and “Application of 3D Thermokinematic Inverse Modeling, Bayesian Methods, and Data Mining Using High-Performance Parallel Computing (HPC) for the Analysis of Petroleum Basins in Colombia,” respectively. In addition, we would like to express our gratitude to Andrés Felipe Alarcón and Andrés David Barrera for their invaluable support during fieldwork and sample preparation and for their insightful feedback throughout the manuscript writing process, which greatly enriched this paper. Additionally, we thank the editor, Tatiana Alonso, Ulrich Anton Glasmacher, and an anonymous reviewer for their constructive comments and suggestions, which significantly enhanced the quality of this research

ARTICLE INFORMATION

• Manuscript ID: e20240033. Received on: 20 JUNE 2024. Approved on: 24 JAN 2025.
  How to cite: Sandoval-Espinel, L. C., Bermudez, M., & Sandoval Espinel, J. J. (2025). Deciphering the cooling history of the garzon massif: a body that records variable exhumation patterns? Brazilian Journal of Geology, 55, e20240033. https://doi.org/10.1590/2317-4889202420240033

• FUNDING
  This study was funded by Minciencias and the National Hydrocarbons Agency (ANH) through the projects titled “Application of 3D Thermo-Kinematic Reverse Modeling , Bayesian Methods, and Data Mining Using High-Performance Parallel Computing (HPC) for the Analysis of Oil Basins in Colombia” (Project Code: 1109-931-94496; Contract Number: 80740-038-2023) and “Geological Habitat, Prospectivity, Socio-Environmental and Economic Sustainability of Wet Gas (LPG)” (Project Code: 110987780498; Contract Number: 80748-233-2021).

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Edited by

• ASSOCIATE EDITOR:
  Claudio Riccomini https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7249-5706

• SCIENTIFIC EDITOR:
  Carlos Grohmann https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5073-5572

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  28 Apr 2025
• Date of issue
  2025

History

• Received
  20 June 2024
• Accepted
  24 Jan 2025