Figure 1.
Stacking patterns and relative depositional systems trajectories in downstream settings (modified from Catuneanu 2017Catuneanu O. 2017. Sequence stratigraphy: guidelines for a standard methodology. In: Montenari, M. (ed.). Stratigraphy & Timescales. United Kingdom: Academic Press, 2:1-57.). The stratal geometry applies to a seismic scale. Conversely, the stacking of architectural elements relates to a high-resolution scale.
Figure 2.
The development of stratal stacking patterns during regression and transgression results from the interplay between accommodation and sedimentation (modified from
Catuneanu 2006Catuneanu O. 2006. Principle of sequence stratigraphy. Amsterdam: Elsevier , 375 p.,
Fragoso et al. 2021Fragoso D.G.C., Raja Gabaglia G.P., Magalhães A.J.C., Scherer C.M.S. 2021. Cyclicity and hierarchy in sequence stratigraphy: an integrated approach. Brazilian Journal of Geology, 51(2):e20200106. https://doi.org/10.1590/2317-4889202120200106
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1590/...
). The base-level curve varies from a minimum to a maximum, and so does the rate of the base-level change (i.e. accommodation). To clarify, both are presented as symmetrical sine curves and the sedimentation rate is constant even though they are much more complex and asymmetric in nature.
Figure 3.
Schematic illustration of the three main compartments that make up sedimentary systems. Each compartment is characterized by a dominant process: erosion, transfer and sedimentation (
Castelltort and Van Den Driessche 2003Castelltort S., Van Den Driessche J. 2003. How plausible are high-frequency sediment supply-driven cycles in the stratigraphic record? Sedimentary Geology, 157(1-2):3-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0037-0738(03)00066-6
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/...
).
Figure 4.
Key factors on carbonate sedimentation. Understanding carbonate systems require answering the five “W”: When, What, HoW, Where was produced, and Where was accumulated.
Figure 5.
Carbonate sediment productivity and accumulation determines the aggradational or progradational stacking pattern and varies with depth and depositional setting. The black rectangles represent the production and the aggradational or progradational rate in the marine environment.
Figure 6.
Critical depths and processes that control the development of carbonate sequences.
Figure 7.
Carbonate vs. clastic sedimentation.
Figure 8.
Facies architecture and sequence stratigraphy interpretation of a rimmed carbonate platform in Cap Blanc, Mallorca. The Llucmajor Platform consists of a stratigraphic unit subdivided into four hierarchic units (1-M, 2-M, 3-M, and 4-M) bound by SU and related CC basinward (modified from
Pomar 1993Pomar L. 1993. High-resolution sequence stratigraphy in prograding Miocene carbonates: application to seismic interpretation. In: Loucks R.G., Sarg J.F. (eds.). Carbonate sequence stratigraphy. American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Memoir, 57:389-407.,
Pomar and Haq 2016Pomar L., Haq B.U. 2016. Decoding depositional sequences in carbonate systems: Concepts vs experience. Global and Planetary Change, 146:190-225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2016.10.001
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/...
). SU is related to karstic features in each hierarchy. The photo exhibits the youngest outcropping 2-M unit and its youngest three 3-M units. Internal subdivision of 3-M units, shown by progradation of reef complexes, stands for 4-M units and is not visible in this picture.
Figure 9.
Forced regressive stacking pattern expression in (A) low-resolution modern analog landscape, Canadian shield (Catuneanu 2006Catuneanu O. 2006. Principle of sequence stratigraphy. Amsterdam: Elsevier , 375 p.) and the equivalent progradation and degradation patterns seen in seismic lines. (B) Forced regressive sharp-based hummocky cross-bedded sandstone filling gutter casts is bound by RSME and CC (Bathonian-Early Callovian, Lusitanian Basin; modified from Magalhães et al. 2021Magalhães A.J.C., Terra G.J.S., Guadagnin F., Fragoso D.G.C., Menegazzo M.C., Pimental N.L.A., Kumaira S., Fauth G., Santos A., Watkins D.A., Bruno M.D.R., Ceolin D., Baecker-Fauth S., Raja Gabaglia G.P., Teixeira W.L.E., Lima-Filho F.P. 2021. Stratigraphic record of cyclic low- and hig-energy sedimentation in a muddy, mixed siliciclastic-carbonate shelf, Middle Jurassic of the Central Lusitanian Basin. In press.). Stick is 1.2 m long.
Figure 10.
Normal regressive stacking pattern expression in (A) low-resolution modern analog landscape, wave dominated Paraíba do Sul delta in Southern Brazil (Google Earth), as well as the equivalent aggradational and progradational patterns seen in seismic lines. A high-resolution normal regressive deltaic succession exhibits thickening- and coarsening-upward patterns (B, C and D) that fine-grained delta plain deposits may cap. Example from the fluvial dominated Mesoproterozoic Açurua Formation in the Chapada Diamantina Basin, Brazil (modified from
Magalhães et al. 2015Magalhães A.J.C., Scherer C.M.S., Raja Gabaglia G.P., Catuneanu O. 2015. Mesoproterozoic delta systems of the Açuruá Formation, Chapada Diamantina, Brazil. Precambrian Research, 257:1-21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2014.11.016
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/...
). Paleocurrent directions are indicated.
Figure 11.
Transgressive stratal stacking pattern expression in (A) low-resolution modern analog from the Sittang River estuary, Myanmar (Google Maps), and the equivalent classic stratal geometry seen in seismic lines. (B, C and D) High-resolution retrogradational stacking pattern exhibited by estuarine sandy tidal channels and bars (in yellow) overlain by fine-grained shoreface strata (in green). The transgressive stacking is punctuated by superimposed subaerial unconformity and tidal-ravinement surfaces (Mesoproterozoic Tombador Formation, Chapada Diamantina Basin, NE Brazil, modified from
Magalhães et al. 2014Magalhães A.J.C., Scherer C.M.S., Raja Gabaglia G.P., Bállico M.B., Catuneanu O. 2014. Unincised fluvial and tide-dominated estuarine systems from the Mesoproterozoic Lower Tombador Formation, Chapada Diamantina basin, Brazil. Journal of South American Earth Sciences, 56:68-90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2014.07.010
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/...
). Paleocurrent directions are indicated.
Figure 12.
Cause and effect relationship in the sedimentary system (modified from Selley 1970Selley R.C. 1970. Ancient sedimentary environments and their subsurface diagnosis. 4ª ed. New York: Routledge, 237 p.). Sedimentary processes produce depositional facies and surfaces.
Figure 13.
Schematic transgressive succession composed of tidal channels and bars overlain by shoreface strata. As the location of WRS development shifts landwards during transgression, WRS is neither connected nor superimposed by the previous surface of similar nature. Instead, they are separated by transgressive deposits. Note that high-frequency regressions materialized by SU punctuate the long-term transgressive trend.
Figure 14.
The available data’s scale constrains the sequence stratigraphic workflow. Note that a chronostratigraphic framework must precede facies representation on both scales.
Figure 15.
(A) Orthographic projection from DTM at the Pai Inácio anticline (built from Also Palsar digital elevation model overlaid by CNES Airbus image), Chapada Diamantina Basin, northeastern Brazil. The SU1 unconformity, between Mesoproterozoic Middle Espinhaço I and II sequences, is mapped along the cliffs. (B) Low-frequency subaerial unconformities identified on the orthographic projection from DOM/VOM (built from aerial images acquired from a helicopter) of the Pai Inácio hill integrated with the facies and the GR log (modified from
Magalhães et al. 2016Magalhães A.J.C., Raja Gabaglia G.P., Scherer C.M.S., Bállico M.B., Guadagnin F., Bento Freire E., Silva Born L.R., Catuneanu O. 2016. Sequence hierarchy in a Mesoproterozoic interior sag basin: from basin fill to reservoir scale, the Tombador Formation, Chapada Diamantina Basin, Brazil. Basin Research, 28(3):393-432. https://doi.org/10.1111/bre.12117
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/...
).
Figure 16.
Medium-frequency T-R sequences from the Lusitanian Basin (Magalhães et al. 2021Magalhães A.J.C., Terra G.J.S., Guadagnin F., Fragoso D.G.C., Menegazzo M.C., Pimental N.L.A., Kumaira S., Fauth G., Santos A., Watkins D.A., Bruno M.D.R., Ceolin D., Baecker-Fauth S., Raja Gabaglia G.P., Teixeira W.L.E., Lima-Filho F.P. 2021. Stratigraphic record of cyclic low- and hig-energy sedimentation in a muddy, mixed siliciclastic-carbonate shelf, Middle Jurassic of the Central Lusitanian Basin. In press.). (A) Orthophotomosaic from DOM/VOM. (B) 200 MHz synthetic GPR from the outcrop. (C) A photo from the same location in perspective. Note the muddy character of TST and the amalgamation of HST sandy and carbonate strata that prograde southwards. (D) 200 MHz synthetic GPR profile mirrors the outcrop features and recognizes distinct stacking patterns and sequence stratigraphic surfaces.
Figure 17.
The lithostratigraphic correlation (A) does not represent the stacking pattern and hence, may induce poor outcomes in production project (modified from Ainsworth et al. 1999Ainsworth R.B., Sanlung M., Theo S., Duivenvoorden C. 1999. Correlation techniques, perforation strategies, and recovery factors: An integrated 3-D reservoir modeling approach Sirkit Field, Thailand. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 83:535-1551.). The chronostratigraphic correlation (B) mirrors the appearance of a normal regression on outcrop (modified from Ainsworth et al. 1999Ainsworth R.B., Sanlung M., Theo S., Duivenvoorden C. 1999. Correlation techniques, perforation strategies, and recovery factors: An integrated 3-D reservoir modeling approach Sirkit Field, Thailand. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 83:535-1551.) (C) and stands for the more realistic representation of reservoirs and heterogeneities. Outcrop from the Middle Jurassic Lajas Formation in Neuquén Basin Argentina (photo courtesy of Carlos Arregui).
Figure 18.
The dip-oriented seismic line shows depositional sequences 1 to 5 from Albian to Campanian in the Potiguar Basin (
Melo et al. 2020Melo A.H., Andrade P.R.O., Magalhães A.J.C., Fragoso D.G.C., Lima-Filho F.P. 2020. Stratigraphic evolution from the early Albian to late Campanian of the Potiguar Basin, Northeast Brazil: An approach in seismic scale. Basin Research, 32(5):1054-1080. https://doi.org/10.1111/bre.12414
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/...
). Depositional sequence 1 (DS 1) is entirely fluvial landward from well 17 and marine basinward from well 18.
Figure 19.
Aspects of the carbonate facies from a core slice to a thin-section in the Ponta do Mel Formation (
Terra 1990Terra G.J.S. 1990. Facies, modelo deposicional e diagênese da sequência carbonática Albo-Cenomaniana (Formação Ponta do Mel) da Bacia Potiguar. MSc thesis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, 154 p.). (A) Coralgal boundstone and (B) plane-polarized light, photo horizontal axis = 4.5 mm. (C) Oncolitic grainstone and (D) cross-polarized light, photo horizontal axis = 4.5 mm. (E) Mudstone with planktonic foraminifers (
Favusella Washitensis). Plane-polarized light, photo horizontal axis = 0.9 mm. (F) Mudstone with calcispheres on the right. Plane-polarized light, photo horizontal axis = 1.1 mm. Note that the carbonate facies are highly cemented. Regarding the location, see
Fig. 21.
Figure 20.
A close view from a seismic line between wells 17 and 18 shows distinct seismic facies from LST, TST, and HST from depositional sequence 1. The zigzag lines indicate the lateral facies contacts between depositional systems that compose each systems tract. Seismic line from
Melo et al. (2020Melo A.H., Andrade P.R.O., Magalhães A.J.C., Fragoso D.G.C., Lima-Filho F.P. 2020. Stratigraphic evolution from the early Albian to late Campanian of the Potiguar Basin, Northeast Brazil: An approach in seismic scale. Basin Research, 32(5):1054-1080. https://doi.org/10.1111/bre.12414
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/...
).
Figure 21.
Low-resolution chronostratigraphic cross-section based on well logs calibrated with seismic and core data. SU2 was chosen as datum since it closely relates to the paleodepositional surface at the end of HST. The larger carbonate thickness indicates keep-up of the platform due to accommodation created by sin-depositional faults. Letters indicate the location of the photos shown in
Fig. 17.
Figure 22.
High-frequency stratigraphic sequences compose a third order TST (topped by MFS 2) and account for reservoir zonation. SU placed at the top of paleosol intervals from overbank deposits (OB) is superimposed by MRS at the base of the transgressive meandering fluvial strata (MCH;
Melo et al. 2020Melo A.H., Andrade P.R.O., Magalhães A.J.C., Fragoso D.G.C., Lima-Filho F.P. 2020. Stratigraphic evolution from the early Albian to late Campanian of the Potiguar Basin, Northeast Brazil: An approach in seismic scale. Basin Research, 32(5):1054-1080. https://doi.org/10.1111/bre.12414
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/...
).
Figure 23.
Permo-porous system of carbonate reservoirs.
Figure 24.
The presence of porosity in subsurface carbonates depends on a delicate balance between pore destruction and pore preservation mechanisms.
Figure 25.
(A) Detailed facies analysis within (B) the high-resolution stratigraphic framework sequence of the Pinda Group, Kuanza Basin, Albian, offshore Angola. The best reservoirs are the regressive grainstone subtidal complex overlain by impermeable anhydrite from the supra- to intertidal complex. This impermeable seal favored the preservation of primary porosity by avoiding the circulation of cementing fluids.
Figure 26.
Gama-ray log and facies associations of the Oligocene-Miocene rimmed-platform interval in the Campos Basin (Correa et al. 2013Correa C.R.A., Lykawka R., Lourenço A.T.A., Silva A.P., Reis F.N., Leviski T.F. 2013. 3D geological modelling of a karstified carbonate reservoir support on seismic attributes and dynamic well data, Campos Basin, Brazil. In: International Conference & Exhibition, 2013. American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Article #90166.). Note that normal regression is punctuated by high-frequency transgressive strata.
Figure 27.
Nested stratigraphic architecture of the Oligocene-Miocene carbonate platform, in the Campos Basin, Brazil (Correa et al. 2013Correa C.R.A., Lykawka R., Lourenço A.T.A., Silva A.P., Reis F.N., Leviski T.F. 2013. 3D geological modelling of a karstified carbonate reservoir support on seismic attributes and dynamic well data, Campos Basin, Brazil. In: International Conference & Exhibition, 2013. American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Article #90166.). The platform comprises four third-order sequences (SR 40 to SR 10) in which clinoforms sets correspond to fourth-order sequences. Hence, SR 30 was subdivided into SR 31 and SR 32, for example.
Figure 28.
The integration of 3D structural (A) and facies (B) models highlights karstic features associated with natural fractures and SU on top SR 40, SR 32, (C and D) and SR 31 zones, hence promoting super-k layers (Correa et al. 2013Correa C.R.A., Lykawka R., Lourenço A.T.A., Silva A.P., Reis F.N., Leviski T.F. 2013. 3D geological modelling of a karstified carbonate reservoir support on seismic attributes and dynamic well data, Campos Basin, Brazil. In: International Conference & Exhibition, 2013. American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Article #90166.).
Figure 29.
Diagenetic evolution of a carbonate reservoir as a function of different mineralogy in systems tracts (the Smackover and Buckner formations, Oxfordian, Texas; modified from
Moore 2010Moore C.H. 2010. Carbonate reservoirs: porosity evolution and diagenesis in a sequence stratigraphy framework, developments in sedimentology 55. Amsterdam, Elsevier, 444 p.). Photomicrographs from the Bahamas illustrate the diagenetic events. Plane-polarized light, photo horizontal axis = 0.4 mm. Porosity types according to
Choquette and Pray (1970Choquette P.W., Pray L.C. 1970. Geological nomenclature and classification of porosity in sedimentary carbonates. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 54(2):207-250. https://doi.org/10.1306/5D25C98B-16C1-11D7-8645000102C1865D
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1306/...
).
Figure 30.
Schematic model for hydrothermal dolomitization based on deposits from Canada, the United States and Ireland (
Davies and Smith Jr. 2006Davies G.R., Smith Jr. L.B. 2006. Structurally controlled hydrothermal dolomite reservoir facies: an overview. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 90(11):1641-1690. https://doi.org/10.1306/05220605164
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1306/...
). Notice the importance of impermeable shale layers mappable through HRSS that act as a barrier to the ascending fluid flow and concentrate dolomitization.
Figure 31.
Schematic model representing hydrothermal mineralization (SEDEX and MVT) and hydrothermal dolomite reservoir facies in sedimentary successions (
Davies and Smith Jr. 2006Davies G.R., Smith Jr. L.B. 2006. Structurally controlled hydrothermal dolomite reservoir facies: an overview. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 90(11):1641-1690. https://doi.org/10.1306/05220605164
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1306/...
). Note the importance of an impermeable seal overlying all types of mineralization triggered by ascending fluids.
Figure 32.
Schematic representation of a thin, highly layered, and laterally disconnected reservoir (e.g. meandering fluvial, tidal bars, estuarine, coastal, and shallow-marine carbonate). It is the case of high-frequency transgressive/highstand intervals within a lower-order transgressive systems tract. Note that the reservoir width is smaller than well spacing. Black lines represent zone boundaries. (A) Discovery of the field in a hypothetical anticline. Some zones are opened to production. (B) Production well-type curve with net-to-gross (NTG) = 20%. Oil production is flash, and the water cut is low due to abrupt depletion. (C) These factors support well-planning and spacing, and hence a large number of wells (within a small space) are drilled in order to optimize production. BSW is low and starts rising. (D) As oil production declines, BSW increases, pressure drops, and many zones are closed (the blue color in the produced reservoirs means pressure depletion and water invasion). (E) New zones are opened. (F) Zones closed. There is a good chance of residual oil. Infill drilling and water injection are needed in order to rejuvenate the field.
Figure 33.
Schematic representation of the 10m thick, less heterogeneous, and laterally connected reservoirs (e.g. braided fluvial and eolian sand sheets, or when architectural element dimensions are more extensive than well spacing). It is the case of high-frequency lowstand/transgressive intervals within a lower-order lowstand systems tract. Black lines represent zone boundaries. (A) Discovery of the field in a hypothetical anticline. Some zones are opened to production. (B) Production well type curve. The production rate remains constant up until the first signal of an increase in BSW. Reservoir pressure remains constant due to the active aquifer. (C) These factors support well-planning and spacing, and hence a small number of wells (large spacing) are drilled to optimize production. (D) As BSW increases, water replaces oil, and (E) the opened zones are completely drained. (F) Previous zones are squeezed and new ones are opened to production. Ultimately, wells are closed, and no residual oil remains. Infill drilling and secondary recovery are unnecessary.
Figure 34.
The Upper Kharaib fourth-order reservoir zonation, Abu Dhabi, revealed the 2.1 m uppermost zone (highlighted in blue). The horizontal well drilled along that zone presents a threefold increase in the production rate compared to other wells in the field (modified from
Torres et al. 2017Torres K.M., Ugonoh M.S., Al Hashmi N.F. 2017. High-resolution sequence stratigraphy analysis and diagenesis evolution of a Barremian carbonate platform (Kharaib Formation), Onshore Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. In: Abu Dhabi International Petroleum Exhibition & Conference. Annals… SPE-188875-MS. https://doi.org/10.2118/188875-MS
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.2118/...
).
Figure 35.
Lithostratigraphic interpretation superimposed on a 4D seismic time-lapse in the Albian carbonate reservoir (offshore Brazil) shows ΔIP vertical sections resulting from the 4D joint inversion from 1987-2002 (left) 2002-2010 (right). The OWC at well W3 is observed from 1987 to 2002 as a flat positive IP anomaly. Note the water fingering affecting well W3, and water injected through well IW from 2002 to 2010, indicating the need for stratigraphic refinement in order to individualize zones within a previously assumed homogeneous reservoir (modified from
Grochau et al. 2014Grochau M.H., Benac P.M., Alvim L.M., Sansonowski R.C., Pires P.R.M., Villaudy F. 2014. Brazilian carbonate reservoir: a successful seismic time-lapse monitoring study. The Leading Edge, 33(2):164-170. https://doi.org/10.1190/tle33020164.1
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1190/...
).
Figure 36.
Structural section passing through wells 13 and 14. (A) Example of a tilted oil-water contact (dashed blue line). Note the ten meters difference in elevation between these wells spaced only 93 meters apart from each other. However, the high-resolution zonation showed that the “tilted contact” truncates the high-resolution zone boundary (blue line, MRS 2). (B) The high-resolution zonation demonstrated the presence of two distinct horizontal oil-water contacts instead of one tilted contact. (Cretaceous Açu Formation, Potiguar Basin, Brazil, Melo et al. 2018).
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T: transgression; NR: normal regression; FR: forced regression; A: accommodation; S: sedimentation.
T-R: transgressive-regressive; HST: highstand systems tract; FSST: falling stage systems tract; LST: lowstand systems tract; TST: transgressive systems tract; MFS: maximum flooding surface; SU: subaerial unconformity; BSFR: basal surface of forced regression; RSME: regressive surface of marine erosion; CC: correlative conformity; MRS: maximum regressive surface; TRS: tidal-ravinement surface; WRS: wave-ravinement surface.
Source: modified from 
S: production rate; A: aggradation; P: progradation. Source: modified from 
Source: 
Source: modified from 
Source: modified from 
GR: gamma-ray log.
Source: modified from 
Source: modified from 
EFAC: facies associations.
LMC: low-magnesium calcite; DOL: dolomite; ϕ: porosity; RSL: relative sea level.
Qoil: oil rate; Qliquid: liquid (oil + water) rate.
Phie: effective porosity.
ΔIP: wave impedance variation; OWC: oil-water contact; IW: injection well; PW: production well.
