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Abandoned, lost or otherwise discarded fishing gears in rocky reefs of Southern Brazil

INTRODUCTION

The intense exploitation of fishing resources has led the activity into a global crisis. However, fishing effort continues to increase despite the collapse of some of the main fish stocks (FAO, 2014FAO. The state of world fisheries and aquaculture. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome, 2014. 223 p.). This increasing effort produces both direct and indirect impact on marine ecosystems (PAULY et al., 2002PAULY, D.; CHRISTENSEN, V.; GUÉNETTE, S.; PITCHER, T. J.; SUMAILA, U. R.; WALTERS, C.; WATSON, R.; ZELLER, W. D. Towards sustainability in world fisheries. Nature, v. 418, p. 689-695, 2002.). Marine debris resulting from abandoned, lost or otherwise discarded fishing gear (ALDFG) (LAIST, 1995LAIST, D. W. Marine debris entanglement and ghost fishing: a cryptic and significant type of bycatch. In: Proceedings of the Solving Bycatch Workshop, September 25-27, Seattle, 1995. p. 33-40.; MACFADYEN et al., 2009MACFADYEN, G.; HUNTINGTON, T.; CAPPELL, R. Abandoned, lost or otherwise discarded fishing gear. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No.185; FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper, No. 523. Rome, UNEP/FAO, 2009. 115 p.) is one type of indirect impact, responsible for harming marine fauna and for causing economic loss (DAYTON et al., 1995DAYTON, P. K.; THRUSH, S. F.; AGARDY, M. T.; HOFMAN, R. J. Environmental effects of marine fishing. Aquat. Conserv., v. 5, n. 3, p.205-232, 1995.).

ALDFG captures target and non-target fish species by a phenomenon known as 'ghost fishing', which means that the fishing gear continues to catch fish even though fishers are no longer controlling it (SMOLOWITZ, 1978SMOLOWITZ, R. J. Trap design and ghost fishing: discussion. Mar. Fish. Rev., v. 40, p. 59-67, 1978.). The term is associated with mortality and injuries inflicted on vertebrates and invertebrates caught by ALDFG (BREEN, 1987BREEN, P. A. Mortality of dungeness crabs caught by lost traps in the Fraser River Estuary, British Columbia. N. Am. J. Fish. Manage., v. 7, n. 3, p. 429-435, 1987.; BARREIROS; RAYKOV, 2014BARREIROS, J. P.; RAYKOV, V. S. Lethal lesions and amputation caused by plastic debris and fishing gear on the loggerhead turtle Caretta caretta (Linnaeus, 1758). Three case reports from Terceira Island, Azores (NE Atlantic). Mar. Pollut. Bull., v. 86, n. 1-2, p. 518-522, 2014.).

At least one-third of the Brazilian coast consists of reef environments, with coral reefs concentrated on the northern/northeastern coast and rocky reefs on the southeastern/southern coast. These ecosystems are highly diverse, rich in natural resources and of great ecological, economic and social importance, with immense potential for hosting endemic species (FERREIRA et al., 2001FERREIRA, C. E. L.; GONÇALVES, J. E. A.; COUTINHO, R. Community structure of fishes and habitat complexity on a tropical rocky shore. Environ. Biol. Fish., v. 61, n. 4, p. 353-369, 2001.; ROCHA, 2003ROCHA, L. A. Patterns of distribution and processes of speciation in Brazilian reef fishes. J. Biogeogr., v. 30, n. 8, p.1161-1171, 2003.).

There are few studies on the impact of ghost fishing in Brazil, many of them reporting the existence of marine debris and fishing gear found in coastal areas (MACHADO; FILLMANN, 2010MACHADO, A. A.; FILLMANN, G. Estudo da contaminação por resíduos sólidos na Ilha do Arvoredo, Reserva Biológica Marinha do Arvoredo - SC, Brasil. J. Integr. Coast. Zone Manage., v. 10, n. 3, p. 381-393, 2010.; MASCARENHAS et al., 2008MASCARENHAS, R.; BATISTA, C. P.; MOURA, I. F.; CALDAS, A. R.; COSTA NETO, J. M.; VASCONCELOS, M. Q.; ROSA, S. S.; BARROS, T. V. S. Lixo marinho em área de reprodução de tartarugas marinhas no Estado da Paraíba (Nordeste do Brasil). J. Integr. Coast. Zone Manage., v. 8, n. 2, p. 221-231, 2008.; POSSATTO et al., 2011POSSATTO, F. E.; BARLETTA, M.; COSTA, M. F.; IVAR DO SUL, J. A.; DANTAS, D. V. Plastic debris ingestion by marine catfish: an unexpected fisheries impact. Mar. Pollut. Bull., v. 62, n. 5, p. 1098-1102, 2011.; VIEIRA et al., 2011VIEIRA, B. P.; DIAS, D.; HANAZAKI, N. Homogeneidade de encalhe de resíduos sólidos em um manguezal da Ilha de Santa Catarina, Brasil. J. Integr. Coast. Zone Manage., v. 11, n. 1, p. 21-30, 2011.; DANTAS et al., 2012DANTAS, D. V.; BARLETTA, M.; COSTA, M. F. The seasonal and spatial patterns of ingestion of polyfilament nylon fragments by estuarine drums (Sciaenidae). Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int., v. 19, n. 2, p. 600-606, 2012.). Ghost fishing was reported for the first time in Brazil - on the coast of the state of Santa Catarina - by CHAVES and ROBERT (2009)CHAVES, P. T.; ROBERT, M. C. Extravios de petrechos e condições para ocorrência de pesca-fantasma no litoral Norte de Santa Catarina e sul do Paraná. Bol. Inst. Pesca, São Paulo, v. 35, n. 3, p. 513-519, 2009.. There is, however, no direct measurement of marine fauna mortality caused by ghost fishing.

The state of Santa Catarina is part of the Brazilian southern region where rocky reefs are dominant. In view of the magnitude of fishing in this state and the vulnerability of reef environments, the objective of this study was to analyze the occurrence and causes of ghost fishing on rocky reefs. Santa Catarina has a coastline approximately 531 km long and is included in the Atlantic Biogeographical Province (FLOETER; GASPARINI, 2000FLOETER, S. R.; GASPARINI, J. L. The southwestern Atlantic reef fish fauna: composition and zoogeographic patterns. J. Fish Biol., v. 56, n. 5, p. 1099-1114, 2000.) and harbors a great variety of environments including rocky reefs (HOSTIM-SILVA et al., 2006HOSTIM-SILVA, M.; ANDRADE, A. B.; MACHADO, L. F.; GERHARDINGER, L. C.; DAROS, F. A. M.; BARREIROS, J. P.; GODOY, E. A. S. Peixes de costão rochoso de Santa Catarina: Arvoredo. Itajaí: Universidade do Vale do Itajaí, 2006. 135 p.).

A total of 84 surveys were carried out around 28 reef sites, between 26o and 29ºS (Figure 1) in the search for ALDFG, from November 2011 to December 2012. Surveys were conducted using scuba diving at depths of one to 25 m, with an average underwater duration of 30 min.

Figure 1
Map showing the survey location along the coast of the state of Santa Catarina, Brazil: Pedra dos Lobos (PL), Pedra da Baleia (PB), Ilha da Paz (IPA), Ilha Mandigituba (IM), Monobóia (MON), Ilha Norte (IN), Ilha do Porto (IPO), Ilha dos Pássaros (IPAS), Ilha Sul (ISUL), Ilha dos Remédios (IR), Ilha das Araras (IAN), Parcel do Meio (PM), Laje Norte (LN), Ilha dos Lobos (ILN), Laje Sul (LS), Araçá (AR), Laje das Garoupas (LG), Ilha Galés (IG), Deserta (DES), Parcel da Deserta (PDES), Ilha do Arvoredo (IA), Ilha do Xavier (IX), Moleques do Sul (MS), Ilhas dos Corais (IC), Ilha das Araras (IAS), Parcel do Tacami (PT), Ilha dos Lobos (ILS), and Laje do Campo Bom (LCB). Map prepared by Diogo A. Moreira.

Quantitative and qualitative data of ALDFG and entangled species (entanglement only in nets) observed were recorded using plastic board and pencil, photos, and videos. Samples (parts) of gillnets were obtained to measure the mesh size (distance between opposing knots) using a digital caliper (precision of 0.1 mm) and images were analyzed. The type of fishing gear was described in accordance with FAO (1990)FAO. Fishing gear classification. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome: Fisheries Technical Paper, 1990. 92 p. definitions and the species were identified to the lowest possible taxonomic level.

Information on derelict fishing gear was also obtained through interviews with fishers (N=51), using a semi-structured form based on ALBUQUERQUE et al. (2010)ALBUQUERQUE, U. P.; LUCENA, R. F. P.; LINS NETO, E. M. F. Seleção dos participantes da pesquisa. In: ALBUQUERQUE, U. P.; LUCENA, R. F. P.; CUNHA, L. F. C. (Orgs.). Métodos e técnicas na pesquisa etnoecológica e etnobiológica. Recife: NUPEEA, 2010. 558 p., which contained questions related to: location, type of fishing gear, target species, causes, season and methods of prevention of ALDFG. Similar data were further obtained from spearfishers (N=43).

We recorded ALDFG in all areas sampled, including those in which fishing is not allowed, such as the Arvoredo Marine Biological Reserve (a marine protected area - MPA) and a restricted region used to unload oil tankers (a national security area).

Twelve types of ALDFG were identified on the coast of the state of Santa Catarina (N=107), with gillnets (Figure 2) being the most common of them (Table 1). These nets had seven mesh sizes measured between opposing knots: 90 mm (35%), 80 mm (25%), 100 mm (12%), and 40, 110, 120 and 140 mm (≤10% each).

Figure 2
Gillnets, the most common ALDFG found on rocky reefs off the state Santa Catarina (A) and a specimen of E. marginatus entangled in a gillnet (B). Photos: Áthila A. Bertoncini.

Table 1
Abandoned, Lost or otherwise Discarded Fishing Gear found on rocky reefs, total number (N) and relative abundance (%).

Thirty-two individuals of 12 species were recorded, eight of which were Teleostei and four Crustacea, all found in gillnets (Table 2). The dusky grouper (Epinephelus marginatus) was the most common species found in derelict gillnets (Figure 2), followed by crustaceans: Menippe nodifrons, Damithrax hispidus, and Cronius ruber.

Table 2
Number and relative abundance (%) of species found in derelict gillnets on rocky reefs.

Fishers report that bottom gillnets were the most easily lost gears, usually during the winter, due to bad weather conditions. According to fishers, there are also other contributing factors during the winter: a greater fishing effort on stocks of mullet (Mugil spp.) and the occurrence of right whale (Eubalaena australis). Fishers provided a list of ways to prevent ALDFG: enforcement of legislation, investment in location and navigation equipment (light buoy, sonar, VHF radio, and GPS), training in the correct use of fishing gear, and knowledge of weather forecasting (Table 3).

Table 3
Answers provided by fishers associated with certain issues concerning ALDFG (N=51 fishers). Number of fishers reporting each answer (N) and relative frequency (%).

Lost gillnets were mainly found near marine rocky habitats because, according to fishers, they are deployed close to islands, cliffs and rocky reef areas, targeting reef species such as the dusky grouper (E. marginatus), snowy grouper (Hyporthodus niveatus), comb grouper (Mycteroperca acutirostris), black margate (Anisotremus surinamensis), sheepshead (Archosargus probatocephalus), sea chub (Kyphosus spp.) as well as other transient species, such as snooks (Centropomus spp.), African pompano (Alectis ciliaris), pompanos (Trachinotus spp.), bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix), serra Spanish mackerel (Scomberomorus brasiliensis), castin leatherjacket (Oligoplites saliens), and Atlantic spadefish (Chaetodipterus faber).

Spearfishers frequently observe ALDFG, especially gillnets, along the coastline of the state of Santa Catarina. Fishes and crustaceans were the entangled groups observed by all the spearfishers interviewed (Table 4). Six fish species were reported by them: dusky grouper (E. marginatus), bluefish (P. saltatrix), blue runner (Caranx crysos), mullets (Mugil spp.), sheepshead (A. probatocephalus) and sea chub (Kyphosus spp.). Three crustaceans were reported: clinging crab (Damithrax hispidus), lump stone crab (Menippe nodifrons) and smoothtail spiny lobster (Panulirus laevicauda). Sea turtles (Cheloniidae) and the magellanic penguin (Spheniscus magellanicus) were also mentioned.

Table 4
Answers reported by spearfishers associated with some issues related to ALDFG (N=43 fishers). Number of fishers reporting each answer (N) and relative frequency (%).

This study revealed that ALDFG is widely distributed on the coast of the state of Santa Catarina, mainly near the shore where fishing activities are more intense. ALDFG has been found within fishing exclusion zones, a fact that had already been reported in other Brazilian studies (CASARINI; OBERG, 2007CASARINI, L. M.; OBERG, I. M. F. Áreas marinhas de exclusão a pesca em dutos e plataformas de prospecção de gás na Bacia de Santos. In: GONÇALVES, A.; RODRIGUES, G. M. A. (Orgs.). Direito do petrólelo e gás: aspectos ambientais e internacionais. Santos: Universitária Leopoldianum, 2007. p. 228-249.; GODOY et al., 2007GODOY, E. A. S.; DAROS, F. A.; GERHARDINGER, L. C.; BERTUOL, P. R. K.; MACHADO, L. F.; ANDRADE, A. B.; HOSTIM-SILVA, M. Projeto Peixes de Costão Rochoso de Santa Catarina: subsídios para conservação. In: PRATES, A. P.; BLANC, D. (Eds.). Áreas protegidas do Brasil: áreas aquáticas protegidas como instrumento de gestão pesqueira. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2007. p. 89-105.).

Anthropic pressure is greater on coastal islands (GODOY et al., 2007GODOY, E. A. S.; DAROS, F. A.; GERHARDINGER, L. C.; BERTUOL, P. R. K.; MACHADO, L. F.; ANDRADE, A. B.; HOSTIM-SILVA, M. Projeto Peixes de Costão Rochoso de Santa Catarina: subsídios para conservação. In: PRATES, A. P.; BLANC, D. (Eds.). Áreas protegidas do Brasil: áreas aquáticas protegidas como instrumento de gestão pesqueira. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2007. p. 89-105.) because these are areas much used by tourists and fishers (both recreational and commercial), thereby increasing ALDFG incidence. Ghost fishing is also observed in areas distant from the coast and even in areas where fishing is restricted, such as conservation units. ALDFG has also been observed in oceanic habitats, such as seamounts and atolls in the Atlantic Ocean (SOARES et al., 2011SOARES, M. O.; PAIVA, C. C.; GODOY, T.; SILVA, M. B. Rocas Atoll (Equatorial South Atlantic): a case of marine debris in remote areas. J. Integr. Coast. Zone Manage., v. 11, n. 1, p. 149-152, 2011.; PHAM et al., 2013PHAM, C. K.; GOMES-PEREIRA, J. N.; ISIDRO, E. J.; SANTOS, R. S.; MORATO, T. Abundance of litter on Condor Seamount (Azores, Portugal, Northeast Atlantic). Deep Sea Res. Part II Top. Stud. Oceanogr., v. 98, n. Part A, p. 204-208, 2013.), deep sea (BO et al., 2014BO, M.; BAVA, S.; CANESE, S.; ANGIOLILLO, M.; CATTANEO-VIETTI, R.; BAVESTRELLO, G. Fishing impact on deep Mediterranean rocky habitats as revealed by ROV investigation. Biol. Conserv., v. 171, p. 167-176, 2014.), Alaska (MASELKO et al., 2013MASELKO, J.; BISHOP, G.; MURPHY, P. Ghost fishing in the southeast Alaska commercial Dungeness crab fishery. N. Am. J. Fish. Manage., v. 33, n. 2, p. 422-431, 2013.), Antarctica (CAMPOS et al., 2013CAMPOS, L. S.; MONTONE, R. C.; MOURA, R. B.; YONESHIGUE-VALENTIN, Y.; KAWALL, H. G.; CONVEY, P. Anthropogenic impacts on Sub-Antarctic and Antarctic Islands and the adjacent marine environments, Chapter 10. In: VERDE, C.; PRISCO, G. (Eds.). Adaptation and evolution in marine environments, from pole to pole. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2013. p. 177-203.), and MPAs in the Pacific Ocean (MORISHIGE; MCELWEE, 2012MORISHIGE, C.; MCELWEE, K. At-sea detection of derelict fishing gear in the North Pacific: An overview. Mar. Pollut. Bull., v. 65, n. 1-3, p. 1-6, 2012.).

Gillnets are one of the most widely used types of fishing gear in the world (HOVGARD; LASSEN, 2000HOVGARD, H.; LASSEN, H. Manual on estimation of selectivity for gillnet and longline gears in abundance surveys. Rome: FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, 2000. 84 p.). This is also true among Brazilian artisanal fishers, probably due to the relatively low investment in equipment and human resources required when compared to other fishing practices. The Brazilian fishing legislation imposes rules for the use of gillnets (BRASIL, Ministério da Pesca e Aquicultura/Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2012BRASIL. Ministério da Pesca e Aquicultura/Ministério do Meio Ambiente. Instrução Normativa Interministerial Ministério da Pesca e Aquicultura/Ministério do Meio Ambiente nº 12, de 22 de agosto de 2012. Brasília: Ministério da Pesca e Aquicultura/Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2012.), but fishing laws are not respected (KOTAS et al., 2005KOTAS, J. E.; PETRERE JR., M.; AZEVEDO, V. G.; SANTOS, S. A pesca de emalhe e de espinhel de superfície na Região Sudeste-Sul do Brasil. Série documentos REVIZEE - Score Sul. São Paulo: Instituto Oceanográfico, 2005. 72 p.) and illegal fishing is one of the possible causes of ALDFG.

The abandonment, loss or discarding of fishing gear on rocky reefs occurs regardless of the type of fishers (commercial or recreational) or fishing methods, and has an impact on vulnerable species (e.g., sharks) and species with high market value such as groupers and lobsters. It is worth pointing out that, although the numbers observed are relatively low, they represent specific cases. The mortality caused is, in fact, much higher due to the great durability of this gear.

Various studies have reported the incidence of the capture, injury, and mortality of marine megafauna caused by ALDFG (GODLEY et al., 1998GODLEY, B. J.; GAYWOOD, M. J.; LAW, R. J.; MCCARTHY, C. J.; MCKENZIE, C.; PATTERSON, I. A. P.; PENROSE, R. S.; REID, R. J.; ROSS, H. M. Patterns of marine turtle mortality in British waters (1992-1996) with reference to tissue contaminant levels. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K., v. 78, p. 973-984, 1998.; GOOD et al., 2009GOOD, T. P.; JUNE, J. A.; ETNIER, M. A.; BROADHURST, G. Ghosts of the Salish Sea: threats to marine birds in Puget Sound and the Northwest Straits from derelict fishing gear. Mar. Ornithol., v. 37, p. 67-76, 2009.; ALLEN et al., 2012ALLEN, R.; JARVIS, D.; SAYER, S.; MILLS, C. Entanglement of grey seals Halichoerus grypus at a haul out site in Cornwall, UK. Mar. Pollut. Bull., v. 64, n. 12, p. 2815-2819, 2012.; HONG et al., 2013HONG, S.; LEE, J.; JANG, Y. C.; KIM, Y. J.; KIM, H. J.; HAN, D.; HONG, S. H.; KANG, D.; SHIM, W. J. Impacts of marine debris on wild animals in the coastal area of Korea. Mar. Pollut. Bull., v. 66, n. 1-2, p. 117-124, 2013.). ALDFG is considered to be non-selective, thereby posing a risk to marine organisms of all sizes (CHAVES; ROBERT, 2009CHAVES, P. T.; ROBERT, M. C. Extravios de petrechos e condições para ocorrência de pesca-fantasma no litoral Norte de Santa Catarina e sul do Paraná. Bol. Inst. Pesca, São Paulo, v. 35, n. 3, p. 513-519, 2009.), as well as to sessile species such as corals (CHIAPPONE et al., 2005CHIAPPONE, M.; DIENES, H.; SWANSON, D. W.; MILLER, S. L. Impacts of lost fishing gear on coral reef sessile invertebrates in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. Biol. Conserv., v. 121, n. 2, p. 221-230, 2005.; BO et al., 2014BO, M.; BAVA, S.; CANESE, S.; ANGIOLILLO, M.; CATTANEO-VIETTI, R.; BAVESTRELLO, G. Fishing impact on deep Mediterranean rocky habitats as revealed by ROV investigation. Biol. Conserv., v. 171, p. 167-176, 2014.). Fish and crustaceans are amongst the groups most affected by ghost fishing (ERZINI et al., 1997ERZINI, K.; MONTEIRO, C. C.; RIBEIRO, J.; SANTOS, M. N.; GASPAR, M.; MONTEIRO, P.; BORGES, T. C. An experimental study of gillnet and trammel net 'ghost fishing' of the Algarve (southern Portugal). Mar. Ecol-Prog. Ser., v. 158, p. 257-265, 1997.).

The dusky grouper (E. marginatus) is an important marine fish resource for the state of Santa Catarina (MACHADO et al., 2003MACHADO, L. F.; ANDRADE, A. B.; HOSTIM-SILVA, M.; BARREIROS, J. P. Habitat use by the juvenile dusky grouper Epinephelus marginatus and its relative abundance in Santa Catarina, Brazil. Aqua J. Ichthyol. Aquat. Biol., v. 6, n. 4, p. 133-138, 2003.). It should be noted that E. marginatus is currently listed under the category "vulnerable" in Brazil (BRASIL, Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2014BRASIL. Ministério do Meio Ambiente. Portaria nº 445, de 17 de dezembro de 2014. Fauna Aquática. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2014.) and classified as "endangered" according to the International List of Endangered Species by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (CORNISH; HARMELI-VIVIEN, 2004CORNISH, A.; HARMELIN-VIVIEN, M. Epinephelus marginatus. (Grouper and Wrasse Specialist Group). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. World Wide Web electronic publication. 2004. Available: < http://www.iucnredlist.org>. Accessed: 10 jun. 2014.
http://www.iucnredlist.org...
). Spearfishers report frequent observation of this species in derelict gear (gillnets), corroborated by our survey, thereby providing evidence of cumulative losses for the fishing sector (GILARDI et al., 2010GILARDI, K. V. K.; CARLSON-BREMER, D.; JUNE, J. A.; ANTONELIS, K.; BROADHURST, G.; COWAN, T. Marine species mortality in derelict fishing nets in Puget Sound, WA and the cost/benefits of derelict net removal. Mar. Pollut. Bull., v. 60, n. 3, p. 376-382, 2010.) and for the entire ecosystem as this is one of the main predators (SALE, 1991SALE, P. F. The ecology of fishes on coral reefs. London: Academic Press, 1991. 754 p.).

Even though no turtles, birds or marine mammals were observed in ALDFG during this study, spearfishers reported incidences of capture for the first two groups. IUCN classified the magellanic penguin as "near to being classified as threatened" (MÄDER; SERAFINI, 2011MÄDER, A.; SERAFINI, P. Programa Nacional de Monitoramento do Pinguim-de-Magalhães (Spheniscus magellanicus) 2010-2015. Boletim Pinguins no Brasil nº1. Florianópolis: Programa Nacional de Monitoramento do Pinguim-de-Magalhães, 2011. 8 p.) and sea turtles occurring along the Brazilian coast are classified as "endangered" or "critically endangered" (MACHADO et al., 2008MACHADO, A. B. M., DRUMMOND, G. M.; PAGLIA, A. P. Livro vermelho da fauna brasileira ameaçada de extinção. Brasília: Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2008.). The issue of ALDFG thus deserves greater attention than it currently receives in Brazil.

The occurrence of ALDFG usually happens during the winter, probably due to the adverse weather conditions associated with the predominance of southwesterly winds and cold fronts (Frontal Systems) coming from the south (ARAÚJO et al., 2006ARAÚJO, S. A.; HAYMUSSI, H.; REIS, F. H.; SILVA, F. E. Caracterização climatológica do município de penha, SC. In: BRANCO, J. O.; MARENZI, A. W. C. (Orgs.). Bases ecológicas para um desenvolvimento sustentável: estudos de caso em Penha, SC. Itajaí: UNIVALI, 2006. p. 11-28.). The influence of strong winds has also been reported by fishers in Brazil (ALARCON et al., 2009ALARCON, D. T.; DÂMASO, R. C. S. C.; SCHIAVETTI, A. Abordagem etnoecológica da pesca e captura de espécies não-alvo em Itacaré, Bahia (Brasil). Bol. Inst. Pesca, v. 35, n. 4, p. 675-686, 2009.) and other countries (MATTHEWS; GLAZER, 2010MATTHEWS, T.; GLAZER, R. Assessing opinions on abandoned, lost, or discarded fishing gear in the Caribbean: a final report. Marathon: Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute, 2010. 17 p.).

According to the fishers, there are also other contributing factors in the state of Santa Catarina during that period of the year. A greater fishing effort by commercial and recreational fisheries targeting stocks of species such as mullet (Mugil spp.), bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix), and the whitemouth croaker (Micropogonias furnieri) (SUNYÉ, 2006SUNYÉ, P. S. Diagnóstico da pesca no litoral do Estado de Santa Catarina. In: ISAAC, V. N.; HAIMOVICI, M.; MARTINS, S. A.; ANDRIGUETTO, J. M. (Orgs.). A pesca marinha e estuarina do Brasil no início do século XXI: recursos, tecnologias, aspectos socioeconômicos e institucionais. Belém: UFPA, 2006. p. 141-156.) leading occasionally to the accidental entanglement of baleen whales (PONTALTI; DANIELSKI, 2011PONTALTI, M.; DANIELSKI, M. Registros de enredamentos de baleias-franca, Eubalaena australis (Cetacea, Mysticeti), na temporada reprodutiva de 2010, em Santa Catarina, Brasil. Biotemas, v. 24, n. 2, p. 109-112, 2011.). Further, reports from some areas of the world, have shown that these interactions can result in the mortality or serious injury of marine mammals (READ et al., 2006READ, A. J.; DRINKER, P.; NORTHRIDGE, S. Bycatch of marine mammals in U.S. and global fisheries. Conserv. Biol., v. 20, n. 1, p. 163-169, 2006.).

Accidental removal by other vessels, unskilled handling of fishing gear by recreational fishers, entanglement of large fish, presence of plant debris (such as tree trunks and branches), and disappearance of fishing gear have also been reported to be factors leading to ALDFG in Santa Catarina. Accidents, rough seas, driftwood or debris, and large fish were other causes cited in other Brazilian states (CHAVES; ROBERT, 2009CHAVES, P. T.; ROBERT, M. C. Extravios de petrechos e condições para ocorrência de pesca-fantasma no litoral Norte de Santa Catarina e sul do Paraná. Bol. Inst. Pesca, São Paulo, v. 35, n. 3, p. 513-519, 2009.), as well as in other countries (LAIST, 1995LAIST, D. W. Marine debris entanglement and ghost fishing: a cryptic and significant type of bycatch. In: Proceedings of the Solving Bycatch Workshop, September 25-27, Seattle, 1995. p. 33-40.). The main factors leading to ALDFG include adverse weather, damage to gear, collision with other vessels, entanglement in reefs, shipwrecks or other fishing gear, operational problems (including human error), vandalism, and unregulated or illegal fishing (LAIST, 1995LAIST, D. W. Marine debris entanglement and ghost fishing: a cryptic and significant type of bycatch. In: Proceedings of the Solving Bycatch Workshop, September 25-27, Seattle, 1995. p. 33-40.; BAIRD, 2006BAIRD, R. J. Aspects of illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing the Southern Ocean. Berlin: Springer, 2006. 286 p.).

The fishers who participated in this study have suggested actions for tackling the effects of ALDFG. In some European countries, studies undertaken with fishers to prevent fishing gear being lost, abandoned or discarded have been proven to be efficient (PAWSON, 2003PAWSON, M. G. The catching capacity of lost static fishing gears: introduction. Fish. Res., v. 64, n. 2-3, p. 101-105, 2003.; MACFADYEN et al., 2009MACFADYEN, G.; HUNTINGTON, T.; CAPPELL, R. Abandoned, lost or otherwise discarded fishing gear. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No.185; FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper, No. 523. Rome, UNEP/FAO, 2009. 115 p.).

Efforts have been made to reduce the impact of ghost fishing through: techniques designed to find the lost gear (MCELWEE et al., 2011MCELWEE, K.; DONOHUE, M. J.; COURTNEY, C. A.; MORISHIGE, C.; RIVERA-VICENTE, A. A strategy for detecting derelict fishing gear at sea. Mar. Pollut. Bull., v. 65, n. 1-3, p. 7-15, 2011.; MORISHIGE; MCELWEE, 2012MORISHIGE, C.; MCELWEE, K. At-sea detection of derelict fishing gear in the North Pacific: An overview. Mar. Pollut. Bull., v. 65, n. 1-3, p. 1-6, 2012.), manual removal by divers or vessels (LARGE et al., 2005LARGE, P.; REVILL, A.; RANDALL, P.; ARMSTRONG, M.; HOUGHTON, C.; HAREIDE, N. Programme 5: Western Edge Ghost Nets (gillnet retrieval). Fisheries Science Partnership Report., 2005. 22 p.), incorporation of biodegradable products into fishing gear (BILKOVIC et al., 2012BILKOVIC, D. M.; HAVENS, K. J.; STANHOPE, D. M.; ANGSTADT, K. T. Use of fully biodegradable panels to reduce derelict pot threats to marine fauna. Conserv. Biol., v. 26, n. 6, p. 957-966, 2012.), technological support for fishers (CHAVES; ROBERT, 2009CHAVES, P. T.; ROBERT, M. C. Extravios de petrechos e condições para ocorrência de pesca-fantasma no litoral Norte de Santa Catarina e sul do Paraná. Bol. Inst. Pesca, São Paulo, v. 35, n. 3, p. 513-519, 2009.), and enforcement of laws that control the hidden impact of ALDFG.

As mentioned above, ALDFG is not a problem restricted to Brazil. Thus, studies and actions for tackling the effects of ghost fishing have been carried out in many countries (VAN DER LAST, 2011VAN DER LAST, N. The impacts of ghost fishing in the Dutch North Sea: an introduction of the scale of the phenomenon and proposed management strategies. Final Report. Culemborg: Bureau Waardenburg bv, 2011. 45 p.; CHEN; LIU, 2013CHEN, C. L.; LIU, T. K. Fill the gap: developing management strategies to control garbage pollution from fishing vessels. Mar. Policy, v. 40, p. 34-40, 2013.). The cost-effectiveness of these methods of control is positive (BUTLER et al., 2013BUTLER, J. R. A.; GUNN, R.; BERRY, H. L.; WAGEY, G. A.; HARDESTY, B. D.; WILCOX, C. A value chain analysis of ghost nets in the Arafura Sea: identifying trans-boundary stakeholders, intervention points and livelihood trade-offs. J. Environ. Manage., v. 123, p. 14-25, 2013.), mainly for the fishing sector (ANTONELIS et al., 2011ANTONELIS, K.; HUPPERT, D.; VELASQUEZ, D.; JUNE, J. Dungeness Crab mortality due to lost traps and a cost-benefit analysis of trap removal in Washington State waters of the Salish Sea. N. Am. J. Fish. Manage., v. 31, n. 5, p. 880-893, 2011.), but also for local and global marine biodiversity (GILARDI et al., 2010GILARDI, K. V. K.; CARLSON-BREMER, D.; JUNE, J. A.; ANTONELIS, K.; BROADHURST, G.; COWAN, T. Marine species mortality in derelict fishing nets in Puget Sound, WA and the cost/benefits of derelict net removal. Mar. Pollut. Bull., v. 60, n. 3, p. 376-382, 2010.). About 10% of fishing gear is lost during fishing operations and thus ALDFG is unavoidable wherever fishing takes place (MACFADYEN et al., 2009MACFADYEN, G.; HUNTINGTON, T.; CAPPELL, R. Abandoned, lost or otherwise discarded fishing gear. UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No.185; FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper, No. 523. Rome, UNEP/FAO, 2009. 115 p.).

Fishing activities provide many benefits for society, such as food, employment, business, and leisure. It is crucial that these benefits continue to be available in the future. Any policy designed to protect its sustainable use should incorporate knowledge regarding the impact that fishing has on fishery resources and its environmental support system.

Fishing management in the state of Santa Catarina reflects the problems of the national system. The fishing sector neither recognize the existence of the ghost fishing problem nor adequately recognize its importance.

This indirect impact of fishing activity is rarely included in Brazilian studies, such as those on fisheries management or marine conservation, mainly due to the absence of data. Thus, the results presented here can be used as a basis for some areas of knowledge, provide the first data on the impact of ghost fishing on Brazilian rocky reefs.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to thank the scientific diving team of the COMAR Institute for their collaboration in the fieldwork; the State University of Santa Cruz; Meros do Brasil and Pró-Arribada projects; the Brazilian Center for Research and Management of Fishery Resources on the Southeastern and Southern Coast (CEPSUL/IBAMA) for their assistance with logistics and equipment; the Chico Mendes Institute for Biodiversity Conservation - ICMBio for the license (SISBIO 31065-1); and the Brazilian Coordination of Improvement for Higher Education Personal (CAPES) for a scholarship provided for the first author.

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    Oct-Dec 2016
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