Propantes para fraturamento hidráulico

Campos, V. P. P. de; Sansone, E. C.; Silva, G. F. B. L. e

doi:10.1590/0366-69132018643702219

V. P. P. de Campos ^* * vitorppc@usp.br

Universidade de São Paulo, Escola Politécnica, Departamento de Engenharia Metalúrgica e de Materiais, 05508-010, São Paulo, SP, Brazil

E. C. Sansone

Universidade de São Paulo, Escola Politécnica, Departamento de Engenharia de Minas e Petróleo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil

G. F. B. L. e Silva

Universidade de São Paulo, Escola Politécnica, Departamento de Engenharia Metalúrgica e de Materiais, 05508-010, São Paulo, SP, Brazil

* vitorppc@usp.br

Figuras (10)
Tabelas (6)

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Figure 1:
Pyramid of proppants’ flow, adapted from ¹⁴14. J. Kullman, “The complicated world of proppant selection”, South Dakkota Sch. Mines Techn., Dakota (2011)..

Figura 1:
Pirâmide de fluxo dos propantes, adaptado de ¹⁴14. J. Kullman, “The complicated world of proppant selection”, South Dakkota Sch. Mines Techn., Dakota (2011)..

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Figure 2:
Relationship between some types of proppants and some types of rocks, where sand grains are the sand proppants without covering, soft proppant is the synthetic proppant of low mechanical strength, and hard proppant is the high-strength synthetic proppant. Adapted from Saint-Gobain Innovation Center ¹⁵15. G.F.B.L. Silva, in Proc. 55º Congr. Brasil. Cerâm., Porto de Galinhas, PE, Brasil (2011)..

Figura 2:
Relação entre alguns tipos de propantes com alguns tipos de rochas, onde grãos de areia são os propantes de areia sem recobrimento, propantes leves são os propantes sintéticos de baixa resistência mecânica e propantes rígidos são os propantes sintéticos de alta resistência. Adaptado de Saint-Gobain Innovation Center ¹⁵15. G.F.B.L. Silva, in Proc. 55º Congr. Brasil. Cerâm., Porto de Galinhas, PE, Brasil (2011)..

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Figure 3:
Scheme of choice of proppant type according to the fracture closure stress in the reservoir ¹⁵15. G.F.B.L. Silva, in Proc. 55º Congr. Brasil. Cerâm., Porto de Galinhas, PE, Brasil (2011).^{), (}¹⁶16. J. Gulbis, R.M. Hodge, in Reservoir stimulation, Eds.: M.J. Economides, K.G. Nolte, Wiley, Chichester (2000) 7-1..

Figura 3:
Esquema de escolha do tipo de propante em função da pressão de fechamento da fratura do reservatório ¹⁵15. G.F.B.L. Silva, in Proc. 55º Congr. Brasil. Cerâm., Porto de Galinhas, PE, Brasil (2011).^{), (}¹⁶16. J. Gulbis, R.M. Hodge, in Reservoir stimulation, Eds.: M.J. Economides, K.G. Nolte, Wiley, Chichester (2000) 7-1..

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Figure 4:
Images of: (a) white sand; (b) brown sand; and (c) proppant failure test ceramography (courtesy from Stim-Lab) ¹⁴14. J. Kullman, “The complicated world of proppant selection”, South Dakkota Sch. Mines Techn., Dakota (2011)..

Figura 4:
Imagem de: (a) areia branca; (b) areia marrom; e (c) ceramografia do teste de falha do propante de areia (cortesia de Stim-Lab) ¹⁴14. J. Kullman, “The complicated world of proppant selection”, South Dakkota Sch. Mines Techn., Dakota (2011)..

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Figure 5:
Examples of: (a) standard RCS; (b, c) premium RCS proppants; and (d) resin-coated proppants failure test ceramography (courtesy from Stim-Lab) ¹⁴14. J. Kullman, “The complicated world of proppant selection”, South Dakkota Sch. Mines Techn., Dakota (2011)..

Figura 5:
Exemplos de: (a) propante de areia padrão recoberto com resina; (b, c) propante de areia prêmio recoberto com resina; e (d) ceramografia do teste de falha do propante revestido com resina (cortesia de Stim-Lab) ¹⁴14. J. Kullman, “The complicated world of proppant selection”, South Dakkota Sch. Mines Techn., Dakota (2011)..

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Figure 6:
Images of: (a) high density bauxite ceramic proppants (SBD 3.56 g/cm³); (b) low-density ceramic proppants (SBD ~2.72 g/cm³); (c) intermediate density proppants (SBD ~3.27 g/cm³); and (d) cross-section of failure test of intermediate density ceramic proppants (courtesy from Stim-Lab) ¹⁴14. J. Kullman, “The complicated world of proppant selection”, South Dakkota Sch. Mines Techn., Dakota (2011)..

Figura 6:
Imagens de: (a) propante cerâmico de alta densidade de bauxita (DEM, densidade específica em massa, 3,56 g/cm³); (b) propante de baixa densidade de bauxita (DEM média de 2,72 g/cm³); (c) propante de densidade intermediária (DEM média de 3,27 g/cm³); e (d) sessão de corte de um teste de falha de um propante cerâmico de densidade intermediária (cortesia do Stim-Lab) ¹⁴14. J. Kullman, “The complicated world of proppant selection”, South Dakkota Sch. Mines Techn., Dakota (2011)..

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Figure 7:
Study equipment (via flame) for the preparation of the vitreous proppant based on andesite, rhyolite and basalt (a), and material obtained using the apparatus via flame (b); adapted from ³⁹39. D.G. Hartwich, “Development of proppants from ion exchanged recycled glass and metabasalt glass ceramics”, M.Sc. Thesis, Pennsylv. State Un., Pennsylvania (2011)..

Figura 7:
Equipamento de estudo (via chama) para preparação de propante vítreo baseado em andesita, riolita e basalto (a); e material obtido utilizando o aparato via chama (b); adaptado de ³⁹39. D.G. Hartwich, “Development of proppants from ion exchanged recycled glass and metabasalt glass ceramics”, M.Sc. Thesis, Pennsylv. State Un., Pennsylvania (2011)..

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Figure 8:
Cylinder chart of USA proppant consumption forecast by type (adapted from PacWest Consulting) (a), and pie chart of the expected average use of proppants (adapted from PropTesters, 2011) (b) ⁶⁵65. V. Nicoletopoulos, in Oilfield Min. Outlook 2015, Houston, USA (2015).^{), (}⁶⁶66. M. Yang, J.M. Economides, in Proc. SPE East. Reg. Meet., Soc. Petrol. Eng. Int., Lexington, USA (2012)..

Figura 8:
Gráfico em barras da previsão de consumo de propantes por tipo nos EUA (adaptado de PacWest Consulting Partners) (a) e gráfico de pizza da média prevista do uso de propantes (adaptado de PropTesters, 2011) (b) ⁶⁵65. V. Nicoletopoulos, in Oilfield Min. Outlook 2015, Houston, USA (2015).^{), (}⁶⁶66. M. Yang, J.M. Economides, in Proc. SPE East. Reg. Meet., Soc. Petrol. Eng. Int., Lexington, USA (2012)..

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Figure 9:
History of the use of proppants since their first use in the 1940s (source PropTesters, 2011) ⁶⁶66. M. Yang, J.M. Economides, in Proc. SPE East. Reg. Meet., Soc. Petrol. Eng. Int., Lexington, USA (2012)..

Figura 9:
Histórico do uso de propantes desde seu primeiro uso nos anos 1940 (fonte PropTesters, 2011) ⁶⁶66. M. Yang, J.M. Economides, in Proc. SPE East. Reg. Meet., Soc. Petrol. Eng. Int., Lexington, USA (2012)..

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Figure 10:
Production capacity of ceramic proppants in the world, primary producers in 2013; adapted from ⁶⁵65. V. Nicoletopoulos, in Oilfield Min. Outlook 2015, Houston, USA (2015)..

Figura 10:
Capacidade de produção de propantes cerâmicos no mundo, produtores primários em 2013; adaptado de ⁶⁵65. V. Nicoletopoulos, in Oilfield Min. Outlook 2015, Houston, USA (2015)..

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Table I -
Proppants selection factors.

Tabela I -
Fatores de seleção dos propantes.

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Table II -
Variation of typical density of different types of proppants ²⁷27. J. Kullman, T.T. Palisch, M. Chapman, R. Duenckel, S. Woolfolk, M.C. Vincent, in Proc. SPE Hydr. Fract. Techn. Conf., Soc. Petrol. Eng. Int., Woodlands, USA (2009)..

Tabela II -
Variação da densidade típica de diferentes tipos de propantes ²⁷27. J. Kullman, T.T. Palisch, M. Chapman, R. Duenckel, S. Woolfolk, M.C. Vincent, in Proc. SPE Hydr. Fract. Techn. Conf., Soc. Petrol. Eng. Int., Woodlands, USA (2009)..

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Table III -
Characteristics of ceramic proppants, adapted from ²⁹29. KT Refractories, ktrefractories (2013), < KT Refractories, ktrefractories (2013), http://www.ktrefractories.com/Ceramic-Proppant.cfm >, ac. July 17, 2015.
http://www.ktrefractories.com/Ceramic-Pr... .

Tabela III -
Características do propante cerâmico, adaptado de ²⁹29. KT Refractories, ktrefractories (2013), < KT Refractories, ktrefractories (2013), http://www.ktrefractories.com/Ceramic-Proppant.cfm >, ac. July 17, 2015.
http://www.ktrefractories.com/Ceramic-Pr... .

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Table IV -
Examples of the use of proppants in different wells in the USA; adapted from: Company filings, Morgan Stanley Equity Research, OilPRO estimates.

Tabela IV -
Exemplos do uso de propantes em diferentes reservatórios nos EUA; adaptado de: Company filings, Morgan Stanley Equity Research, OilPRO estimates.

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Table V -
Variety of traded proppants (adapted from Downholetrader) ⁶⁸68. Down Hole Trader, “Trading board offerings”, < Down Hole Trader, “Trading board offerings”, http://downholetrader.com/#2040 >, ac. Jan. 21 (2016).
http://downholetrader.com/#2040... .

>Tabela V -
Variedades de propantes comercializados (adaptado de Downholetrader) ⁶⁸68. Down Hole Trader, “Trading board offerings”, < Down Hole Trader, “Trading board offerings”, http://downholetrader.com/#2040 >, ac. Jan. 21 (2016).
http://downholetrader.com/#2040... .

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Table VI -
List of plants developing activities involving gas/shale oil and/or use/manufacture of proppants (adapted from IMFORMED 2015) ⁶⁹69. M. O’Driscoll, C. Rehn, “US ceramic proppants review”, Energy Global, Oilfield Techn. (2015), < (2015), http://www.energyglobal.com/upstream/drilling-and-production/01042015/US-ceramic-proppants-review/ >, ac. Jan. 21, 2016.
http://www.energyglobal.com/upstream/dri... .

Tabela VI -
Lista de plantas que desenvolvem atividades envolvendo gás/óleo de xisto e/ou uso/produção de propantes (adaptado de IMFORMED 2015) ⁶⁹69. M. O’Driscoll, C. Rehn, “US ceramic proppants review”, Energy Global, Oilfield Techn. (2015), < (2015), http://www.energyglobal.com/upstream/drilling-and-production/01042015/US-ceramic-proppants-review/ >, ac. Jan. 21, 2016.
http://www.energyglobal.com/upstream/dri... .

Table I - Proppants selection factors.

Property	Availability	Fracture treatment	Flow requirement
Resistance	Source of supply	Fluid system required	Desired flow
Format	Quality	Impact of proppant size	Cost x benefit (set, cost of proppant for recovery of hydrocarbons)
Size	Cost	Relation between fluids such as slickwater and cross-linked
Durability	Cost	Relation between fluids such as slickwater and cross-linked

Table II - Variation of typical density of different types of proppants 27.

Proppant type	SBD (g/cm³ )	BD (g/cm³ )
Sand/resin-coated sand (RCS)	2.65	1.60
Light ceramics	2.72	1.62
Intermediate density ceramics	3.27	1.84
High density ceramics	3.56	2.00

Table III - Characteristics of ceramic proppants, adapted from 29.

Density	Proppant (size specification)	Bulk density (g/cm³ )	Observant density (g/cm³ )	Acid solubility (%)	Crushing limit at 69 MPa (%)	Crushing limit at 86 MPa (%)
mid	16/30	1.7-1.9	3.10-3.30	<7	<10	<20
mid/high	1.18-0.60 mm	1.8-2.0	> 3.35	<7	<8	<15
high		1.9-2.1	> 3.45	<6.5	<10	<15
mid	20/40	1.7-1.9	3.10-3.30	<7	<6	<10
mid/high	0.85-0.425 mm	1.8-2.0	> 3.35	<7	<5	<8
high		1.9-2.1	> 3.45	<6.5	<6	<10
mid	30/50	1.7-1.9	3.10-3.30	<7	<5	<9
mid/high	0.80-0.30 mm	1.8-2.0	> 3.35	<7	<4	<7
high		1.9-2.1	> 3.45	<6.5	≤5	<8

Table IV - Examples of the use of proppants in different wells in the USA; adapted from: Company filings, Morgan Stanley Equity Research, OilPRO estimates.

Shale well	Depth (feet)	Stress (MPa)	Stress (kpsi or K)	Commercial grade proppants
Bakken	10,000	41-69	6-10	Ceramic, RCS, sand; 20/40 mesh (0.84/0.4 mm)
Barnett	7,500	21-27	3-4	RCS, white sand; 40/70 & 100+ mesh (0.4/0.21 & 0.14+ mm)
Eagle Ford	11,000	48+	7+	Ceramic, RCS, sand; 20/40; 30/50, 40/70 mesh (0.84/0.4; 0.59/0.29; 0.4/0.21 mm)
Fayetteville	8,000	14-27	2-4	RCS, sand; 40/70 mesh (0.4/0.21 mm)
Haynesville	10,500	62+	9+	Ceramic, premium RCS; 30/50; 30/60; 40/70 mesh (0.59/0.29; 0.59/0.25; 0.4/0.21 mm)
Marcellus	7,000	34-48	5-7	Sand, limited RCS & ceramic; 40/70; 30/50; 100+ mesh (0.4/0.21; 0.59/0.29; 0.14+ mm)

Table V - Variety of traded proppants (adapted from Downholetrader) 68.

Size (mesh)	Name	Source	Crush resistance (MPa/kpsi or K)	Price (US$/ton)
20/40	Seed sand	Millet, TX	41 / 6	93
	Packers Frac. sand	Wisconsin	48 / 7	77.50
	Sailing sand	East Texas	55 / 8	95-100
40/70	Winter white sand	Port, Texas	76 / 11	137.50
40/70	Garnett sand	South	48 / 7	70
100	Baker sand	Wisconsin	76-90 / 11-13	38
100	Seine River sand	Texas	62-90 / 9-13	117

Table VI - List of plants developing activities involving gas/shale oil and/or use/manufacture of proppants (adapted from IMFORMED 2015) 69.

Plant	Estimated share production capacity (%)	Company	Capacity (thou. ton/year)	Feedstock	Status/remarks
Eufaula, AL		Carbo Ceramics Inc.	125	Kaolin	Active
McIntery, GA			125	Kaolin and bauxite	Idled
Toomsboro, GA			454	Kaolin	Active
New Iberia, LA			9	Alumina, kaolin	Kryptosphere hd; +250, ld. retrofit at another factory
Millen, GA			113	Kaolin and bauxite	Active, +250, end 2015/2016
Carbo USA total	65		825
Andersonville, GA		Imerys Oilfield Solutions	100	Kaolin	Idled
Wrens, GA			227	Kaolin	Active (reduced output)
Imerys USA total	21		327
Fort Smith, AR		Saint-Gobain Proppants	91 (estimated)	Bauxite
Bryant, Saline, AR			150	Bauxite	Idled
Saint-Gobain USA total	14		240		Active
USA total			1,393

[1] * vitorppc@usp.br

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Propantes para fraturamento hidráulico

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