Systematic review of the characteristics of LGBT homicides

Mendes, Wallace Góes; Duarte, Marco José de Oliveira; Andrade, Carlos Augusto Ferreira de; Silva, Cosme Marcelo Furtado Passos da

doi:10.1590/1413-812320212611.33362020

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REVIEW • Ciênc. saúde coletiva 26 (11) • Nov 2021 • https://doi.org/10.1590/1413-812320212611.33362020 copy

Systematic review of the characteristics of LGBT homicides

Authorship SCIMAGO INSTITUTIONS RANKINGS

Abstract

The lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) population has long been excluded, a reality produced by social marginalization, which is still present in today’s society. This article aims to present a quantitative profile of LGBT homicides, focusing on the crimes, victims, and perpetrators. We conducted a systematic review of quantitative studies on LGBT homicide using the following databases: PubMed Central (Medline), Latin American and Caribbean Center for Health Sciences Information (LILACS), Embase (Elsevier), Scopus (Elsevier), the Virtual Health Library (BVS), and APA PsycNet. The searches were run using terms taken from the Medical Subject Headings (MESHs) and Health Sciences Descriptors (DeCS - BVS). Sixteen studies were included. Homicides tended to involve a single victim and single perpetrator and occur at the victim’s residence or in public locations. Victims were more likely to be older than the perpetrator and offenders were usually unknown to the victim. Transgender people were the most affected group and most of the victims in this group were aged under 30 years. The findings of this review confirm that LGBT homicides may be considered “hate crimes” and that victims are generally killed with firearms or non-firearms, beaten to death or suffocated.

Key words:
Sexual and gender minorities; Homicide; Homophobia; Systematic review

Study	Location	Study Period	Crimes	Victims	Perpetrators
(Bartlett, 2007)*	England and Wales	1976 to 2001	- 64% of the crimes occurred in the victim’s residence and 16% in public locations - 31% of the crimes involved beatings; 30% involved non-firearms; and 30% involved strangling, suffocation or drowning	- 54% were homosexual or bisexual. - 80.5% were aged over 30; average age was 43 years - 65% had consumed alcohol - 53.2% were businesspersons or managers; 45.4% were on benefits, unemployed, or pensioners	- 72% had consumed alcohol - 79.5% were aged under 30 years; average age was 23 years - 78% were unemployed
(Bell & Perry, 2015)	Florida, United States	1982 to 1992	- 29.9% of the crimes involved non-firearms; 42.0% beatings and/or strangling; and 22.4% firearms	- Average age was 43.7 years
(Boivin, 2016)	Mexico	1995 to 2013	- 49% of the crimes occurred in public locations or hotels; 35% in the victim’s residence; 18% in a house of prostitution - 92% of the homosexual and bisexual victims were found in their residences, while transgender victims were found in public spaces (69%) and hotels (14%) - the victims found in public spaces (38%) and hotels (33%) were frequently tortured - 33% of the crimes involved stabbing; 27% beating and torture; 25% suffocation, strangling or hanging; and 13% firearms - 40% of the victims were killed by friends or acquaintances. - 39% of the victims were found naked; 29% of the victims had been tortured and 26% were found tied up - 46% of the victims found in public spaces and hotels were naked 7% of the victims were raped, suffered genital mutilation or assaulted with an object inserted into the rectum	- 97% were male - 55% were aged over 34 years; average age was 35 years - 39% were officials, priests, art and culture professionals; 15% were stylists and small businesspersons; and 14% were sex workers - More than twice as many transgender people as homosexuals or bisexuals were murdered in the 25 to 34-year age group	- 50% were aged between 25 and 29 years and 43% between 18 and 24 years - 49% were soldiers or ex-soldiers; 33% were hustlers; 17% were unemployed or students; and 11% were waiters, kitchen helpers or similar
(Carrara & Vianna, 2006)	Rio de Janeiro, Brazil	1970 to 1990	- 60.7% of the homosexuals and bisexuals murdered in their residences were killed using non-firearms, suffocation or blunt objects and most of the crimes were profit-oriented - 68% of the trans people murdered in public locations were killed using firearms; almost all the murders were executions	- Average age was under 35 years. - 40% were black or brown	-
(Granados & Delgado, 2008)	Mexico	1995 to 2000	- 46.7% of the crimes involved non-firearms and 34.2% involved beatings. - 17.4% of victims were found naked and 11.4% were found tied up	- 95.1% were male. - 61.6% were aged over 30 years
(Gruenewald, 2012)**	United States	1990 to 2008	- 28.7% of the crimes involved non-firearms; 27.0% involved firearms; 22.1% involved bodily weapons; and 16.4% involved blunt objects - 65.3% of the victims were killed by friends or acquaintances - 42.7% of the crimes had multiple perpetrators - 7.2% of the crimes had multiple victims	- 94.2% were male - 74.4% were homosexual/ bisexual; 13.3% were transgender; 8.8% were heterosexual; 4.4% were lesbians	- 100.0% were male - 73.4% were white and 18.1% were black - Average age was 25.1 years
(Gruenewald & Kelley, 2014)**	United States	1990 to 2010	- 41.2% of the homicides occurred in the victim’s residence - 72.7% of the crimes involved alternative weapons to firearms. - 42.0% of the crimes had multiple perpetrators and 93.4% had only a single victim - 50.4% of the perpetrators admitted choosing the victims because of their sexual orientation or gender identity - 28.1% of the crimes were planned acts of violence against the LGBT community - 15.7% of the offenders revealed their crimes to others - 32.2% of the crimes were profit-related - 8.3% of the perpetrators manipulated or mutilated the victim’s body	- 95.0% were male - 57% were white; 19% were black; and 17% were Hispanic - 4.1% were heterosexual (mistaken identity)	- 69.7% were white - Average age was 25 years - 69.3% knew their victims
(Kelley, 2013)**	United States	1990 to 2010	- 42.0% of the crimes had multiple perpetrators - 41.2% of the crimes occurred in the victim’s residence - 32.2% of the crimes were profit-related - 72.7% of the crimes involved non-firearms - 26.4% of the perpetrators stated that the crime was motivated by homophobia - 59.3% of the victims were killed by friends or acquaintances - 50.4% of the perpetrators admitted choosing the victims because of their sexual orientation or gender identity	- 95.0% were male - 56.5% were white	- Average age was 24.9 years - 69.7% were white - 14.9% had consumed drugs or alcohol
(Mercado Mondragon, 2009)	Mexico	1999 to 2006	- 50.4% of the crimes occurred in the victim’s residence and 23.4% in public locations - 33.6% of the crimes involved stabbings; 19.0% involved beatings; 13.0% involved strangling; and 6.9% involved firearms	- 96.1% were male - 65.8% were aged over 30 years
(Mott & Michels, 2019)***	Brazil	2018	- 47% of the victims were killed by friends or acquaintances - 27% of the perpetrators were identified	- 51% were homosexual or bisexual and 42% were trans people - 64.5% were single - 63% were aged over 30 years - 64% were white - 23.9% were teachers and 20.9% students
(Mouzos & Thompson, 2000)	New South Wales, Australia	1989 to 1999	- 53.6% of the crimes occurred at the weekend - 62.1% of the crimes occurred between 6 pm and 6 am - 62.1% of the crimes occurred in the victim’s residence and 31.0% in public locations - 54.5% of the crimes had a single victim and multiple offenders and 45.5% had a single victim and single offender - 90.9% of the perpetrators were younger than the victim - 70% of the crimes involved savage beatings, repeated stabbings, mutilation and/or dismemberment - 52.3% of the victims were killed by a friend or acquaintance	- Average age was 43 years - 48.3% consumed alcohol - 93.1% were white	- 93.2% were male - 68.1% were aged between15 and 24 years; average age was 20 years - 93.2% were white - 77.3% were single - 81.8% did not work
(Oliveira, 2012)***	Sergipe, Brazil	1980 to 2010	- 43% of the crimes occurred in public locations and 42% in the victim’s residence - 33% of the crimes involved firearms; 30% involved non-firearms; 13% involved strangling; involved 11% beatings with wooden sticks, and 9% involved stoning - 64% of the perpetrators were identified, with 39% being convicted of the crime	- 73% were homosexual or bisexual; 19% were trans people; and 8% were lesbians - 68.5% of the victims were aged 30 years and over - 21% had completed higher education	- 69% were aged under 24 years - 94% were single - 76% had only completed primary education - 45% were students, unemployed or self-employed
(Prunas et al., 2015)	Milan, Italy	1993 to 2012	- 50% of the crimes occurred in the victim’s residence and 45% in public locations - 38.5% of the victims were killed by friends or acquaintances - 40.0% of the crimes involved non-firearms; 42.0% involved beating and/or strangling; and 15.0% involved firearms - 92.0% of the crimes had a single victim and single perpetrator	- 100.0% of the victims were male (sex assigned at birth) - Average age was 33.4 years - 100.0% were trans people	- Average age was 31 years
(Stacey, 2011)	United States	2000 to 2005	- 34.3% of the crimes occurred in the victim’s residence and 26.9% in public locations - 13.4% of the crimes had multiple victims and 18.0% had multiple offenders. - 24.8% of the victims were killed by friends or acquaintances - 17.4% of the victims had consumed alcohol or drugs - 49% of the crimes involved non-firearms and 33.2% involved beatings. - 57.5% of the crimes occurred at night	- 80% were male - 66.9% were white	- 53.3% were white - Average age was 20 years
(Tomsen, 2002)*	New South Wales, Australia	1989 to 1999	- 43.2% of the crimes occurred in the victim’s residence and 40.5% in public locations - 44.6% of the crimes involved beatings; 29.7% involved stabbings; and 8.1% involved firearms - 37.8% of the perpetrators were unknown to the victim and 34.8% were friends or acquaintances - 54.4% of the crimes had multiple offenders - 56.8% of the victims were at least 10 years older than the offenders	- 79.7% were aged over 30 years - 71.2% were businesspersons or managers; 28.8% were retired or did not work	- 95.6% were male - 86.9% were aged under 30 years - 40.7% were unemployed; 33.2% were janitors; 16.6% were students; and 9.5% were hustlers
(Waters et al., 2016)	United States	2015	-	- 67% were trans people - 79% were aged under 35 years - 62% were black or Latinos

Studies	Questions								Overall quality
Studies	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
(Bartlett, 2007)	Y	Y	Y	NA	NA	Y	Y	Y	Positive
(Bell & Perry, 2015)	Y	Y	Y	NA	NA	Y	Y	Y	Positive
(Boivin, 2016)	Y	Y	Y	NA	NA	Y	Y	Y	Positive
(Carrara & Vianna, 2006)	Y	Y	Y	NA	NA	Y	Y	Y	Positive
(Granados & Delgado, 2008)	Y	Y	Y	NA	NA	Y	Y	Y	Positive
(Gruenewald & Kelley, 2014)	Y	Y	Y	NA	NA	Y	Y	Y	Positive
(Gruenewald, 2012)	Y	Y	Y	NA	NA	Y	Y	Y	Positive
(Kelley, 2013)	Y	Y	Y	NA	NA	Y	Y	Y	Positive
(Mercado Mondragon, 2009)	Y	Y	Y	NA	NA	Y	Y	Y	Positive
(Mott & Michels, 2019)	Y	Y	Y	NA	NA	Y	N	N	Neutral
(Mouzos & Thompson, 2000)	Y	Y	Y	NA	NA	Y	Y	Y	Positive
(Oliveira, 2012)	Y	Y	Y	NA	NA	Y	Y	Y	Positive
(Prunas et al., 2015)	Y	Y	Y	NA	NA	Y	Y	Y	Positive
(Stacey, 2011)	Y	Y	Y	NA	NA	Y	Y	Y	Positive
(Tomsen, 2002)	Y	Y	Y	NA	NA	Y	Y	Y	Positive
(Waters et al., 2016)	Y	Y	Y	NA	NA	Y	N	N	Neutral
QUESTIONS: 1. Are the study design and sampling method appropriate for the research question? 2. Is the sampling frame appropriate? 3. Is the sample size adequate? 4. Are objective, suitable and standard criteria used for measurement of the health outcome? 5. Is the health outcome measured in an unbiased fashion? 6. Is the response rate adequate? Are the refusers described? 7. Are the estimates of prevalence or incidence given with confidence intervals and in detail by subgroup, if appropriate? 8. Are the study subjects and the setting described in detail and can they be generalized for other similar situations?
Y: Yes; N: No; NA: Not applicable.

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[1] Collaborations

WG Mendes: Data collection, tabulation, descriptive and analytical analysis. Methodology elaboration. Writing the text and standardizing the rules according to the journal. MJO Duarte: Data collection. Text revision and suggestion of significant parts of the text. CAF Andrade: Methodology elaboration. Text revision and suggestion of significant parts of the text. CMFP Silva: Text revision and suggestion of significant parts of the text.