Perceptions about home cooking: an integrative review of qualitative studies

This study aimed to review qualitative studies on perceptions of home cooking. A systematic search was conducted in Scopus and SciELO databases using English and Portuguese terms related to home cooking, without date or language restrictions. Twenty-six articles, published between 2004 and 2017, investigated, whether as a primary objective or as a secondary finding, the perceptions of individuals on home cooking. More than half of the studies were conducted in English-speaking countries. Study participants included women and men, adults and seniors as well as residents of urban and rural areas, Eastern and Western countries, and developing and de veloped nations. Thematic analysis showed that home cooking has different interpretations and meanings in diverse contexts and revealed differences in how individuals plan and cook their meals at home. Cognitive, practical, affective, and emotional factors are the major motivators to home meal preparation. Having a cooking role model in the family, cooking confidence and skills, and living alone were reported as facilitators of home cooking. A better understanding of the het-erogeneity of perceptions and meanings of home cooking can contribute to the development of effective and culturally appropriate interventions for stimulating healthy cooking habits. mally processed ingredients, whereas, for others, cooking can be carried out using highly- or ul-tra-processed foods 48 . These results indicate that individuals have different understandings about what it means to cook. The distinction between high-complexity and low-complexity cooking tasks and cooking from raw and pre-prepared foods is not always clear 15,49 .


Introduction
The eating habits of Western urban societies have been constantly changing. Since the mid-20th century, individuals have devoted less time to home meal preparation [1][2][3][4] . This reduction in home cooking is believed to be associated with the increasing unhealthy food choices made by modern society [5][6][7][8] .
Strategies aimed at encouraging home cooking and increasing the nutritional quality of diets are gaining visibility. In Brazil, two important guidelines were published to encourage healthy eating habits. The Food and Nutrition Education Guidelines for Public Policies states that "home cooking promotes personal emancipation, develops autonomy, and contributes to sensory, cognitive, and social growth" 9 (p.68). The Food Guide for the Brazilian Population is a comprehensive guide on healthy eating. It recommends the use of "raw and minimally processed foods as opposed to ultra-processed foods". Minimally processed foods are raw foods that have undergone industrial processes, but do not involve the addition of salt, sugar, oils, fats or other substances. Ultra-processed foods are products subjected to different processing steps and techniques and with many ingredients, such as salt, sugar, fats and substances for exclusively industrial use 10,11 .
Generally, raw and minimally processed foods need to be selected, pre-prepared, seasoned, cooked, and/or combined with other foods 12 . To follow these important health recommendations, individuals must resort to cooking. Schools and communities around the world have taken to strategies aimed at teaching cooking skills and promoting cooking habits 13,14 .
Research on cooking (and all its complexities), however, is still incipient [15][16][17][18] . Short 15,16 highlighted that there is no clear relationship between knowing how to cook and cooking at home. Meah and Watson 17 argued that it is necessary to understand the processes involved in meal preparation and the dynamics of developing the habit of cooking. In addition, Halkier 18 argues that the act of cooking must be understood as a phenomenon composed of variability and subtleties and that without this understanding there is a risk that researchers and policy-makers may act in a simplistic way, conducting normative and unrealistic initiatives, underestimating the complexity of cooking.
The qualitative approach is recommended to understand a given phenomenon and the perception of individuals about the topic, including their feelings, thoughts, and experiences 19 . Thus, the aim of this study was to perform a systematic review of qualitative studies on home cooking.

Methods
The qualitative systematic review was conducted in the following steps: formulation of the guiding question, identification of inclusion criteria, data collection and treatment, data analysis, discussion of results, and critical review 20 .
The guiding question was: "What do qualitative studies reveal about individuals' perceptions of home cooking?". Search terms were derived from Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), Health Sciences Descriptors (DeCS), and articles identified in a preliminary search of the literature. Additionally, before the final definition of the search terms, exploratory searches were carried out in order to identify key words used in the articles and thus compose the groups of terms as shown in Chart 1.
The search in English and Portuguese was carried out on January 9, 2017, and updated on May 18, 2018, using Scopus and SciELO, without date or language restrictions. Scopus was chosen because it is the largest abstract and citation database of peer-reviewed literature. SciELO was used to increase coverage of Brazilian studies. The Scopus database was searched for terms in English within the fields title, abstract, and key words using two categories of search terms, one related to home cooking and the other to qualitative research. Terms related to cooking equipment and environmental sustainability were excluded using the Boolean operator AND NOT.
The SciELO database was searched for terms in Portuguese and English. Because of the small number of records identified, it was not necessary to use two categories of search words, and only terms related to home cooking were used.
The articles were selected based on the following inclusion criteria: article published in a peer-reviewed journal; full-text for access; study with a qualitative approach; results related to the act of cooking in the domestic environment.
In total, 476 articles were identified through database searching and imported into a reference manager. Of these, 50 were selected based on titles and abstracts. After reading the articles in full, 24 were excluded: 10 for adopting a quantitative approach although they used terms that referred to qualitative research such as perception or meanings, 10 for focusing on foods and nu- trients rather than on home cooking, 3 for being theoretical studies, and 1 for focusing solely on hygiene and sanitation during home meal preparation. The remaining 26 articles reported qualitative data on home cooking and were therefore selected for review. The article selection process is illustrated in Figure 1. Collected data were transferred to a Microsoft Word 2016® document. An inductive thematic analysis was carried out according to the six steps proposed by Braun and Clark 21 : familiarization with data, systematic coding of data, grouping of codes into themes, review and grouping of themes, definition of themes, production of results. The thematic analysis was conducted by one author and reviewed by another.

Results
The 26 articles included in this review were published between 2004 and 2017. Studies were conducted in 12 different countries, most of which (n = 17) have English as one of the official languages. Of the 26 articles, 14 had the main objective related directly to the act of cooking. On the other hand, this was not the main objective of the other articles. However, they presented in the results, albeit briefly, the participants' perceptions about the act of cooking (Chart 2).
Home cooking was the main topic of research in 14 studies and a secondary finding in 12 studies.
We identified three major themes in cooking perception research: Meanings and interpretations of the act of cooking; Motivations for cooking; Facilitators and barriers to cooking.

Meanings and interpretations of the act of cooking
Four studies analyzed the different interpretations of cooking 18,[22][23][24] . Two assessed participants' understanding of the terms "home cooking" 24 and "cooking from scratch" 23,25 . And the other two highlighted differences in planning, organizing, and carrying out cooking tasks 18,22 .
In United States, Wolfson et al. 24 explored how individuals define home cooking. Definitions varied from "everything from scratch" to "anything prepared at home" (including readyto-eat foods, frozen meals, etc.).
Lavelle et al. 23 , in a study carried out in Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland, identified the different meanings of cooking from scratch. Participants' views ranged from a more traditional definition (using raw ingredients) to a more inclusive meaning (using pre-prepared, frozen foods like frozen fish fillets) 23 . Thus, in both studies there is a variety in the understand- ing and definition of terms related to cooking, ranging from more restrictive versions to more comprehensive versions 23,24 . The great variety of perceptions about cooking identified in both studies mentioned above is corroborated by the results of Gatley 22 . According to the author, a person's understanding of cooking depends largely on the context in which she or he is inserted. The author assessed the cooking behavior and experiences of women and men in France and Great Britain. Respondents were asked to report what types of foods they prepared at home. Almost half of the British respondents reported to use convenience or ready-to-eat foods, whereas French participants reported using pre-prepared items for quick meal preparation; none, however, reported to use convenience foods, with the exception of pizza for children 22 .
Halkier 18 showed that individuals have different ways of planning and preparing meals. The author assessed the cooking practices of six women, aged 25 to 50 years, living in six different regions of Denmark, and with different family structures and levels of education. Different cooking styles were observed. Cooking required extensive planning for some women but came naturally to others. Ingredients were purchased based on predefined recipes or without planning, for improvisation. Knowledge of cooking was gained as a child/adolescent or later in life out of necessity. For some women, written recipes were considered essential for meal preparation, and, for others, recipes were sources of inspiration that could be adapted according to personal preferences or availability of ingredients 18 . Figure 2 shows the main motivators to home cooking identified in this review.

Motivations for cooking
According to reports from the United States 24,26,27 , United Kingdom 22,28 , and North Ireland and Republic of Ireland 23 , cooking allows people to have control over their and their families' eating habits. For instance, Canadian parents that cook at home can control the type of foods that their children eat, fulfilling their role as "gatekeepers" of family nutrition 29 .
For Brazilian 30 , Canadian 29,31 , American 24,26,27,32 , and British 33 individuals, home cooking can be used as a strategy to reduce food costs even with scarce food and financial resources, allowing greater control of the domestic budget. Canadian individuals reported that cooking is a skill that can increase self-sufficiency 29 and everyone should possess 34 . Knowing how to cook is perceived as a sign of independence and responsibility for personal food habits 29 .
Men and women from Canada, United States, United Kingdom, France and China 26,28,29,32,33,[35][36][37] believe that cooking allows individuals to connect with others, strengthen relationships, and express love and care.
British people often feel pleasure 28 in cooking and enjoy the social aspect of the activity 28,35 . It is considered a recreational activity that involves friends and family, especially on weekends 35 . Americans reported that home cooking is motivated by the pleasure of devoting oneself to the activity 26,27,32 . For men in Sweden and Canada, cooking is a leisure activity that allows for experimentation and expression of creativity 33,34,36,38 .
American 24 , British and French 35 individuals defined the act of cooking as a priority activity 24 and incorporated into the daily routine 35 . Swedish men reported that cooking was essential to meet daily needs 38 . British individuals, especially mothers, identified responsibility for providing their children with food as an important motivation for cooking 28 .
Cooking is seen as a means of maintaining family and cultural traditions as well as creating new ones 17,27,29,[39][40][41][42] . In Unite States, some women maintained the cooking habits of their mothers, whereas others resented their heritage and sought new cooking experiences 39 . American seniors reported that they took pride in prepar-ing dishes that had been passed down through generations 27 . Danish young adults changed their eating habits and tried to influence those of their parents after developing cooking skills 43 . In an observational study carried out in Malaysia found that cooking with family members, especially the mother, strengthens family bonds and allows gaining knowledge about cooking 44 . In the Netherlands, Indian immigrants reported that cooking is a central part of the sense of belonging and helps to deal with being away from home. The use of traditional family ingredients and utensils increased their ties to the family 42 .

Cooking facilitators and barriers
The facilitators and barriers to cooking reported in the selected studies are summarized in Figure 3. American 26,27 , Canadian 29 , Danish 18,43 , and Irish 23 individuals highlighted the importance of having a family member as a cooking role model. Halkier 18 observed that some Danish women who had learned to cook in their child-hood considered cooking to be a natural and simple task 18 . In another study in Denmark, participants considered their parents as positive role models regarding meal planning and the use of vegetables and spices 43 . On the other hand, young adults in the United States attributed their lack of confidence in cooking to the small number of meals prepared at home by their parents during their childhood 26 .
Knowing how to cook and having confidence in this ability was reported as an important factor for home cooking in the United Kingdom 35 , Ireland 23 , United States 26 , and Uruguay 45 and, when lacking, as a barrier to cooking 26,45 . Additionally, individuals pointed out that the ability to organize and plan meals, which includes planning what will be prepared, organizing time, buying food, preparing food and cleaning the environment also facilitate and favor the effective act of home cooking 23,24,26 . As a strategy to optimize time, American individuals cook meals in large quantities, use leftovers, and prepare or process ingredients in advance 24 . In Denmark, individu- Control over food choises and intake 23,26,[29][30][31][32][33] Preservation of family traditions and eating habits 17,23,24,27,32,34,35,37,44 Dayly needs and priorities 25,28,31,33 Leisure, enjoyment, and experimentation 25,26,28,32,34,38,39,43 Cooking for others provides a feeling of connection and love 23,25,34,38,43,47 Self-suffiency independence, and responsibility for food choises 23,39,47 Increased control over family budget 22,23,26,31,32,34,36,43 Motivators to home cooking Cooking role model and contact with home meal preparation during childhood 18,23,26,27,30,32 Confidence and familiarity with cooking skills 25,26,30,41 Availability of pre-prepared foods and household utensils 25,33,37 Organization and planning capacity 26,30,31 Creative inspiration 30 Living alone 25,33 Living alone 31,33,42 Lack of a cooking role model in the family 26 Lack of confidence or cooking skills 26,41 Availability of away-from-home food establishments 26,30 Price of fresh foods 30,31 Lack of time 25,26,30,31,45,48 and interest 25,[30][31][32]41 Facilitators Barriers als chose to outsource the responsibility of planning and purchasing ingredients by acquiring "meal boxes". Boxes containing the necessary ingredients for a certain dish are delivered at home. Thus, users still cook at home, but with reduced efforts 46 . Irish individuals reported the importance of creative inspiration, which may stem from recipes, experiences at restaurants, and grocery shopping 23 . Among British adults of different income groups, the availability of pre-prepared foods (e.g., frozen fish and vegetables, canned beans, and bagged greens), utensils, and equipment facilitate home cooking 28,35,40 . Because of the lack of time to cook, participants are becoming increasingly dependent on the use of pre-prepared foods to cook at home 28,35 .
Lack of time is one of the major barriers to cooking. Family and work commitments and leisure opportunities significantly influence the decision to (not) cook. The accelerated pace of life and other personal demands often do not allow individuals to partake in this activity 23,24,26,28,35 .
In studies carried out in Ireland 23 and Unites States 26 , the availability and proximity of places to buy convenience foods or eat out were associated with the choice of not cooking at home. American young adults often choose to purchase foods or meals at university canteens and restaurants rather than eating at home because of the practicality and low cost 26 . In other studies, for some individuals cooking is not seen as a priority or necessity 23,24,27,35,45 . In Uruguay, individuals reported that they did not like to cook and, therefore, invested little time on cooking from scratch. Some reported that, although they enjoyed cooking, they felt overwhelmed by having to cook every day 45 .
The high costs of raw foods, such as fruits, vegetables, and meat, is a barrier to preparing meals at home. Irish and American individuals prefer buying cheaper, processed foods as opposed to raw foods 23,24 .
Living arrangements influence the choice of cooking at home. Elderly British women 47 and British 28 and American 24 adults reported that living alone discouraged home cooking. On the other hand, living alone was considered a stimulus to develop the habit of cooking by young British individuals 28,35 .

Discussion and final considerations
This qualitative review presents the point of view of individuals from different backgrounds about aspects related to cooking at home. We observed a multiplicity of perceptions about home cooking and meal planning. For some individuals, home cooking includes the use of raw and/or mini-mally processed ingredients, whereas, for others, cooking can be carried out using highly-or ultra-processed foods 48 . These results indicate that individuals have different understandings about what it means to cook. The distinction between high-complexity and low-complexity cooking tasks and cooking from raw and pre-prepared foods is not always clear 15,49 .
Cognitive, practical, social, and emotional factors were among the main motivators to cooking. Therefore, strategies aimed at encouraging home cooking should take into account not only economic and cognitive motivations but also the affective components of cooking, for instance, by promoting cooking as a form of leisure and creativity expression.
Six facilitators and six barriers to cooking were identified, some of which were considered ambivalent, such as the presence or absence of a cooking role model in the family, confidence, and cooking skills. The results demonstrate the importance of having contact with people who cook and developing confidence and cooking skills. Further studies should seek to understand how cooking skills are acquired and how other factors, such as creative inspiration for cooking and meal planning, influence the choice of cooking at home. Broader concepts of cooking skills that go beyond technical and mechanical skills may need to be adopted 49,50 .
Living alone was considered both a barrier and a facilitator to cooking. More information is needed to understand the motivations for (not) cooking of individuals who live alone.
Lack of time and interest were major barriers. The feeling of time pressure leads individuals to dedicate less time to preparing and consuming meals 4,51 and may affect their interest in cooking. Author identified that individuals who enjoy cooking do not perceive lack of time as a barrier but spend more time cooking 48 .
The cost of fresh food was identified as an important barrier to cooking in the domestic environment, reiterating the role of income and financial access as important determinants for food choices 52,53 .
The different barriers identified confirm the understanding that the determinants related to the habit of cooking in the domestic environment are more complex than the presence of culinary skills 54 .
The availability of pre-prepared foods contributes to home cooking. Pre-prepared foods can be classified as either minimally processed foods (e.g., canned peeled tomatoes) or ultra-processed foods (e.g., tomato sauce containing corn starch and food additives). The Food Guide for the Brazilian Population 12 states that raw and minimally processed foods are part of a healthy diet but ultra-processed foods should be avoided. The degree of processing can only be determined by analyzing the ingredients list. Therefore, it is of utmost importance that consumers be able to understand food labels and have access to clear and reliable information, thereby allowing them to make informed food choices 12,48 .
Because the availability of places to eat out and purchase convenience foods affects the choice of cooking at home, meal nutritional quality should be constantly monitored in food establishments. Consumers must have access to qualitative food information to aid in their awayfrom-home food choices [55][56][57] .
This review included studies carried out at different times and regions of the globe and with diverse populations (for example: men and women; young and elderly adults; eastern and western countries; developed and developing countries; rural and urban area; etc). Thus, the results are influenced by cultural, social, and historical factors. It was not the objective to analyze such differences, which may be regarded as a limitation of this review. However, the compilation allowed to demonstrate different perceptions related to the act of cooking, contributing to deepen the discussion on the theme.
Most studies were conducted in English-speaking countries that share historical, political, and cultural characteristics attributed to the influence of the United Kingdom. More information is needed on other populations, as the act of cooking 24 is defined as a cultural 22,54 practice and is influenced by the presence of multinational food industries and fast-food chains 58 .
The predominance of articles published in English-speaking countries may be related to the importance of the English language to the dissemination of scientific research. As the terms used to search the databases were in Portuguese or English, it is likely that studies published in French, Italian, or Spanish without an English or Portuguese abstract were not identified.
The use of different terms helped to broaden the literature search. Qualitative research typically adopts a variety of concepts and terms to refer to a given topic. The goal was to include studies with different objectives and gain a global view of cooking perceptions. In many studies, home cooking was not the primary focus. Articles were read in full to identify, even when pre-sented as secondary findings, aspects related to perceptions of cooking. This approach allowed to broaden the understanding of the act of cooking, discussing the motivations, influences and the way individuals relate to this practice.
The analysis of the selected articles led to reflections on possible issues that can be explored in new studies, in order to understand how the habit of cooking develops over the course of life, or even what motivations lead individuals who live alone to cook (or not). It would also be interesting to know the motivations and behavior of individuals who overcome time constraints and develop the habit of cooking.
This review indicates that interventions and strategies aimed at promoting home cooking can address not only cognitive and practical factors but also affective and emotional ones. A broader view of home cooking should be adopted, taking into account the importance of planning meals and cooking skills, the combined use of raw and pre-prepared foods, and the need for creative inspiration for cooking. Strategies that consider the cost of raw foods, lack of time and interest, and meal planning may be effective in stimulating participants to develop healthy cooking habits.

Collaborations
AC Mazzonetto contributed to the conception and design of the study, collected and analyzed the data, and wrote the manuscript. M Dean contributed to the study conception and design. GMR Fiates contributed to the study design, selection of articles, data collection and analysis, and critical review of the manuscript.