Physical and social neighborhood disorder in Latin American cities: a scoping review

Magalhães, Amanda Silva; Andrade, Amanda Cristina de Souza; Moreira, Bruno de Souza; Lopes, Adalberto Aparecido dos Santos; Caiaffa, Waleska Teixeira

doi:10.1590/0102-311XPT038423

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REVIEW • Cad. Saúde Pública 39 (9) • 2023 • https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311XEN038423 linkcopy

Physical and social neighborhood disorder in Latin American cities: a scoping review

Authorship SCIMAGO INSTITUTIONS RANKINGS

Abstract:

Neighborhood disorder is an important aspect that may influence the health of residents in urban areas. The aims of this study were to map and systematize methods for measuring physical and social neighborhood disorder in studies conducted in Latin American cities. By means of a scoping review, articles published from 2000 in English, Spanish, and Portuguese with the following descriptors were mapped: neighborhood, physical disorder, and social disorder. Searches were conducted in MEDLINE (PubMed), LILACS (Virtual Health Library), Scopus, Web of Science, and Cochrane Library. Information on authorship, year, study type, locality, data source, target population, outcome, dominion, indicator, method, geographic unit, and unit of analysis was extracted. Variables from the disorder-related studies were extracted and grouped by similarity of content and themes. A total of 22 articles were identified, all published between 2012 and 2022, the majority in Brazil (n = 16). The perception of the individual was the most used method. The most frequent theme addressed in the physical disorder dominion was public streets (n = 20) and security (n = 15), in the social disorder dominion. A lack of consensus in the literature regarding variables used to measure physical and social neighborhood disorder in Latin American cities was detected. In addition to the need for standardization of the theme, studies to verify the sustainability of proposed measurement methods relevant to dynamically classify and compare urban neighborhoods and health impacts based on levels of exposure to physical and social disorder, are recommended.

Keywords:
Residence Characteristics; Neighborhood Characteristics; Urban Health

STUDY	TIPE OF STUDY	LOCALITY	DATA SOURCE	TARGET POPULATION	OUTCOME
Moran et al. ³¹ (2022)	Association	Buenos Aires (Argentina), Bogotá (Colombia), Caracas (Venezuela), Fortaleza (Brazil), La Paz (Bolivia), Lima (Peru), Mexico City (Mexico), Montevideo (Uruguay), Panama City (Panama), Quito (Ecuador), and São Paulo (Brazil)	Interview	Adults	Social disorder
Moreira et al. ⁴² (2022)	Association	Belo Horizonte (Brazil)	Interview	Older adults	Walking for transportation
Moreira et al. ¹⁵ (2021)	Association	Brazil	Interview	Older adults	Global walk
Auler et al. ¹² (2020)	Association	Brazil	Secondary data	Adolescents	Common mental disorders
Layera et al. ¹⁶ (2020)	Association	Santiago (Chile)	Secondary data	Adults	Feeling of insecurity and fear of crime
Moran et al. ¹⁷ (2020)	Association	Buenos Aires (Argentina), Bogotá (Colombia), Caracas (Venezuela), Fortaleza (Brazil), La Paz (Bolivia), Lima (Peru), Mexico City (Mexico), Montevideo (Uruguay), Panama City (Panama), Quito (Ecuador), and São Paulo (Brazil)	Interview	Adults	Regular use of parks, squares or green areas
Moreira et al. ⁴⁰ (2020)	Association	Belo Horizonte (Brazil)	Interview	Older adults	History of falls
Vaz et al. ¹³ (2020)	Association	Buenos Aires (Argentina), Mexico City (Mexico), Panama City (Panama), and Lima (Peru)	Interview	Adults	Self-rated health
Andrade et al. ⁴⁴ (2019)	Association	Belo Horizonte (Brazil)	On-site audit	Adults	Leisure physical activity
Parajára et al. ⁴³ (2019)	Association	Vespasiano (Brazil)	Interview	Adolescents	Screen time
Remigio et al. ⁴⁶ (2019)	Application of the method *	Rio de Janeiro (Brazil)	On-site audit	NA	NA
Vaz et al. ²¹ (2019)	Association	Belo Horizonte (Brazil)	On-site audit	Older adults	Satisfaction with life
Vilalta et al. ²² (2019)	Association	Mexico City (Mexico)	Secondary data	Youths	Occurrence of homicide
Zanelatto et al. ⁴¹ (2019)	Association	Florianopolis (Brazil)	Interview	Adults	Blood pressure levels
Costa et al. ⁴⁵ (2017)	Psychometric analysis **	Belo Horizonte (Brazil)	On-site audit	NA	NA
Höfelmann et al. ¹⁸ (2015)	Association	Florianopolis (Brazil)	Interview	Adults	Self-rated health
Meireles et al. ²⁰ (2015)	Association	Belo Horizonte (Brazil)	Interview	Adults	Self-rated health
Rodrigues et al. ¹⁹ (2015)	Association	Belo Horizonte (Brazil)	Interview	Adults	Self-rated health
Célio et al. ³⁸ (2014)	Association	Belo Horizonte (Brazil)	Interview	Adults	Self-perceived neighborhood extension
Höfelmann et al. ³⁰ (2013)	Psychometric analysis **	Florianopolis (Brazil)	Interview	Adults	NA
Friche et al. ³⁹ (2013)	Psychometric analysis **	Belo Horizonte (Brazil)	Interview	Adults	NA
Escobar ⁵⁹ (2012)	Association	Bogotá (Colombia)	Secondary data	Youths	Homicides rate

DOMAIN	THEME	CATEGORY	ORIGINAL VARIABLES	STUDY
Physical disorder	Environmental factors	Music	Places with loud music	³⁸ ^, ³⁹ ^, ⁴⁰ ^, ⁴²
Physical disorder	Environmental factors	Music	Loud music	¹⁹
Physical disorder	Environmental factors	Odor	Unpleasant odor	¹⁸ ^, ³⁰ ^, ⁴⁶
Physical disorder	Environmental factors	Air, water and ground pollution	Air, water and ground pollution	¹⁸ ^, ³⁰
Physical disorder	Aesthetics	Trees	Trees	¹² ^, ³¹
Physical disorder	Aesthetics	Pleasant places	No safe place for children to play	¹⁸ ^, ³⁰
Physical disorder	Aesthetics	Pleasant places	Pleasant neighborhood for children, young people and teenagers	¹⁹ ^, ³⁸ ^, ³⁹ ^, ⁴⁰ ^, ⁴²
Physical disorder	Real estate and public facilities	Deteriorated properties; Graffiti on buildings and public facilities	Properties with graffiti and signs of deterioration	⁴⁵
Physical disorder	Real estate and public facilities	Deteriorated properties; Graffiti on buildings and public facilities; Empty properties, lots and lands	Buildings and houses with graffiti, broken windows, damaged walls, or abandoned	¹⁵
Physical disorder	Real estate and public facilities	Deteriorated properties	Buildings or houses in poor condition	¹⁶
Physical disorder	Real estate and public facilities	Graffiti on buildings and public facilities	Graffiti on walls	¹⁶
Physical disorder	Real estate and public facilities	Graffiti on buildings and public facilities	Graffiti	²²
Physical disorder	Real estate and public facilities	Graffiti on buildings and public facilities	Graffiti on public equipment and facilities	²¹
Physical disorder	Real estate and public facilities	Graffiti on buildings and public facilities	Graffiti on public equipments	⁴⁴ ^, ⁴⁵
Physical disorder	Real estate and public facilities	Buildings under construction	Buildings under construction	¹⁹ ^, ³¹
Physical disorder	Real estate and public facilities	Empty properties, lots and lands	Empty lots and lands	¹⁹
Physical disorder	Real estate and public facilities	Empty properties, lots and lands	Abandoned, illegally taken or invaded buildings, houses or lots	¹³
Physical disorder	Real estate and public facilities	Empty properties, lots and lands	Empty buildings, houses or lots	³⁸ ^, ³⁹ ^, ⁴⁰ ^, ⁴²
Physical disorder	Neighborhood problems	Points of sale and use of drugs	Buying and using drugs	¹³
Physical disorder	Neighborhood problems	Vandalism	People breaking windows, damaging walls, or committing vandalism	³⁸ ^, ³⁹ ^, ⁴⁰ ^, ⁴²
Physical disorder	Public streets	Holes	Holes in the streets	¹⁶
Physical disorder	Public streets	Sidewalks	Sidewalks	¹²
Physical disorder	Public streets	Sidewalks	Uneven sidewalks	¹⁸ ^, ³⁰
Physical disorder	Public streets	Sidewalks	Uneven pavement	⁴¹
Physical disorder	Public streets	Open sewer	Open sewer	¹²
Physical disorder	Public streets	Displaced electrical wires (hanging, tangled, or knocked down)	Downed electrical wires	²²
Physical disorder	Public streets	Displaced electrical wires (hanging, tangled, or knocked down)	Dangling or tangled electrical wires	⁴⁶
Physical disorder	Public streets	Street lighting	Street lighting	¹² ^, ¹⁹ ^, ³⁸ ^, ³⁹ ^, ⁴⁰ ^, ⁴²
Physical disorder	Public streets	Street lighting	Poorly lit streets	¹³ ^, ³¹
Physical disorder	Public streets	Garbage	Garbage dumps	¹³
Physical disorder	Public streets	Garbage	Garbage	¹² ^, ¹⁸ ^, ¹⁹ ^, ³⁰ ^, ³¹ ^, ⁴⁶
Physical disorder	Public streets	Garbage	Garbage (needles, cigarettes, cans and condoms)	²¹ ^, ⁴⁴ ^, ⁴⁵
Physical disorder	Public streets	Garbage; Bushes	Garbage or tall grass	¹⁵ ^, ³⁸ ^, ³⁹ ^, ⁴⁰ ^, ⁴²
Physical disorder	Public streets	Garbage	Presence of garbage	⁴¹
Physical disorder	Public streets	Curbs	Curbs	¹²
Physical disorder	Public streets	Curbs	Curb ramp	¹²
Physical disorder	Public streets	Paving	Paving	¹²
Physical disorder	Public streets	Rats or signs of them	Rats or signs of them in the street	¹⁵
Physical disorder	Public streets	Street gutters	Street gutters	¹²
Physical disorder	Public streets	Public transportation	Absence of public transport	¹⁸ ^, ³⁰
Physical disorder	Public streets	Public transportation	Urban transport	⁴¹
Physical disorder	Public streets	Leakage of water, gas and sewer	Drinking water leak	²²
Physical disorder	Public streets	Leakage of water, gas and sewer	Sewer leak	²²
Physical disorder	Public streets	Leakage of water, gas and sewer	Gas leak	²²
Physical disorder	Public streets	Abandoned vehicles	Abandoned vehicles	²²
Physical disorder	Public streets	Traffic speed	High speed cars	¹⁸ ^, ³⁰
Physical disorder	Public streets	Traffic speed	Traffic speed	⁴¹
Social disorder	Environmental factors	Music	Loud music	⁴³
Social disorder	Environmental factors	Music	Public disturbance in the form of a party	²²
Social disorder	Environmental factors	Music	People or places in the neighborhood where loud music is heard	²⁰
Social disorder	Environmental factors	Odor	Unpleasant odor caused by neighbors	¹⁶
Social disorder	Environmental factors	Noises	Public disturbance in form of street scandal	²²
Social disorder	Environmental factors	Noises	Nuisance noises	¹⁶
Social disorder	Real estate and public facilities	Video game, lottery and gambling establishments	Video game, lottery and gambling establishments	⁵⁹
Social disorder	Real estate and public facilities	Empty properties, lots and lands	Abandoned buildings, houses, or warehouses with broken windows or doors	⁴³
Social disorder	Real estate and public facilities	Empty properties, lots and lands	Abandoned buildings, houses or sheds	²⁰
Social disorder	Neighborhood problems	Indecent assault	Public indecency	²²
Social disorder	Neighborhood problems	Indecent assault	Record of person urinating in public	²²
Social disorder	Neighborhood problems	Bad reputation reported from the neighborhood	Bad neighborhood reputation	¹⁸ ^, ³⁰ ^, ⁴¹
Social disorder	Neighborhood problems	Begging	Indigence or begging	¹³ ^, ¹⁷
Social disorder	Neighborhood problems	Points of sale and consumption of alcohol	Alcoholic beverage establishments	⁵⁹
Social disorder	Neighborhood problems	Points of sale and use of drugs	People using or selling illegal drugs	¹⁹ ^, ³¹ ^, ³⁸ ^, ³⁹ ^, ⁴⁰ ^, ⁴²
Social disorder	Neighborhood problems	Points of sale and use of drugs	Use of drugs	¹⁷ ^, ¹⁸ ^, ³⁰ ^, ⁴¹
Social disorder	Neighborhood problems	Points of sale and use of drugs	Public use of drugs and alcohol	²²
Social disorder	Neighborhood problems	Prostitution	Prostitution	¹³ ^, ¹⁷ ^, ¹⁹ ^, ³¹ ^, ³⁸ ^, ³⁹ ^, ⁴⁰ ^, ⁴²
Social disorder	Neighborhood problems	Vandalism	Vandalism	¹⁸ ^, ³⁰ ^, ⁴¹
Social disorder	Security	Assaults, arguments and offenses	Aggressive acts or offenses	¹³
Social disorder	Security; Environmental factors	Assaults, arguments and offenses; Music	People arguing loudly or having parties late into the night	²⁰
Social disorder	Security	Assaults, murders and kidnappings	Assault or crime	¹⁷ ^, ³¹
Social disorder	Security	Assaults, murders and kidnappings	Assaults	¹⁸ ^, ³⁰ ^, ⁴¹
Social disorder	Security	Assaults, murders and kidnappings	Murders	¹⁸ ^, ³⁰ ^, ⁴¹
Social disorder	Security	Assaults, murders and kidnappings	Robberies	⁴¹
Social disorder	Security	Assaults, murders and kidnappings	Kidnappings	⁴¹
Social disorder	Security	Noise of gunfire	Noise of gunfire	²⁰
Social disorder	Security	Walk after dark	Walking in the neighborhood after dark	⁴¹
Social disorder	Security	Walk after dark	Insecurity when walking after dark	¹⁸ ^, ³⁰
Social disorder	Security	Conflicts between neighbors	Conflicts between neighbors	¹³
Social disorder	Security	Criminals in the neighborhood	Robbers	¹⁸ ^, ³⁰
Social disorder	Security	Criminals in the neighborhood	Gangs activities	¹³
Social disorder	Security	Criminals in the neighborhood	Criminals walking around the neighborhood	³⁸ ^, ³⁹ ^, ⁴⁰ ^, ⁴²
Social disorder	Security	Criminals in the neighborhood	Criminals or thieves walking in the neighborhood	¹⁹
Social disorder	Security	Criminals in the neighborhood	Gangs	¹⁷ ^, ³¹
Social disorder	Security	Criminals in the neighborhood	People who carry guns (other than police)	²⁰
Social disorder	Security	Problems with the police	Problems with the police	¹⁸ ^, ³⁰ ^, ⁴¹
Social disorder	Security	Risk of violence	Person at risk registration	²²
Social disorder	Public streets	Garbage	Garbage	²²
Social disorder	Public streets	Garbage	Trash or rubble	²⁰ ^, ⁴³
Social disorder	Public streets	Garbage; Bushes	Vacant lots filled with rubbish and rubble or overgrown with bushes	²⁰
Social disorder	Public streets	Garbage	Presence of garbage in the streets	¹⁶

STUDY	DOMAIN	INDICATOR *	METHOD	GEOGRAPHIC UNIT OF DATA COLLECTION OF DISORDER	UNIT OF ANALYSIS OF DISORDER
Moran et al. ³¹ (2022)	Physical and social disorder	Composite	Perception of the individual	Neighborhood	Individual
Moreira et al. ⁴² (2022)	Physical and social disorder	Composite	Perception of the individual	Neighborhood	Individual
Moreira et al. ¹⁵ (2021)	Physical disorder	Simple	Perception of the individual	Neighborhood	Individual
Auler et al. ¹² (2020)	Physical disorder	Composite	Demographic census **	Census tract	Context ***
Layera et al. ¹⁶ (2020)	Physical and social disorder	Composite	Demographic census, satellite images, and administrative data	Census tract	Context ***
Moran et al. ¹⁷ (2020)	Social disorder	Simple	Perception of the individual	Neighborhood	Individual
Moreira et al. ⁴⁰ (2020)	Physical and social disorder	Composite	Perception of the individual	Neighborhood	Context ***
Vaz et al. ¹³ (2020)	Physical disorder	Composite	Systematic social observation	Neighborhood	Context ***
Andrade et al. ⁴⁴ (2019)	Physical disorder	Composite	Perception of the individual	Street segment	Context ***
Parajára et al. ⁴³ (2019)	Social disorder	Simple	Systematic social observation	Neighborhood	Individual
Remigio et al. ⁴⁶ (2019)	Physical disorder	Simple	Systematic social observation	Street segment	Context ***
Vaz et al. ²¹ (2019)	Physical disorder	Composite	Demographic census, satellite images, and administrative data	Street segment	Context ***
Vilalta et al. ²² (2019)	Physical and social disorder	Composite	Crowding source ^#	Neighborhood	Context ***
Zanelatto et al. ⁴¹ (2019)	Physical and social disorder	Composite	Perception of the individual	Census tract	Context ***
Costa et al. ⁴⁵ (2017)	Physical disorder	Composite	Systematic social observation	Street segment	Context ***
Höfelmann et al. ¹⁸ (2015)	Physical ^## and social disorder	Composite	Perception of the individual	Neighborhood	Context ***
Meireles et al. ²⁰ (2015)	Social disorder	Simple	Perception of the individual	Neighborhood	Individual
Rodrigues et al. ¹⁹ (2015)	Physical and social disorder	Composite	Perception of the individual	Neighborhood	Individual
Célio et al. ³⁸ (2014)	Physical and social disorder	Composite	Perception of the individual	Neighborhood	Individual
Höfelmann et al. ³⁰ (2013)	Physical ^## and social disorder	Composite	Perception of the individual	Neighborhood	Context ***
Friche et al. ³⁹ (2013)	Physical and social disorder	Composite	Perception of the individual	Neighborhood	Context ***
Escobar ⁵⁹ (2012)	Social disorder ^###	Composite	Demographic census	Census tract	Context ***

THEME/CATEGORY	PHYSICAL DISORDER	SOCIAL DISORDER
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS (n)	3	3
Music	¹⁹ ^, ³⁸ ^, ³⁹ ^, ⁴⁰ ^, ⁴²	²⁰ ^, ²² ^, ⁴³
Odor	¹⁸ ^, ³⁰	¹⁶ ^, ⁴⁶
Air, water and ground pollution	¹⁸ ^, ³⁰	^-
Noises	^-	¹⁶ ^, ⁶²
AESTHETICS (n)	2	0
Trees	¹² ^, ³¹	^-
Pleasant places	¹⁹ ^, ³⁸ ^, ³⁹ ^, ⁴⁰ ^, ⁴²	^-
REAL ESTATE AND PUBLIC FACILITIES (n)	4	2
Video game, lottery and gambling establishments	^-	⁵⁹
Deteriorated properties	¹⁵ ^, ¹⁶ ^, ⁴⁰ ^, ⁴⁵	^-
Graffiti on buildings and public facilities	¹⁵ ^, ¹⁶ ^, ²¹ ^, ⁴⁴ ^, ⁴⁵	^-
Buildings under construction	¹⁹ ^, ³¹ ^, ³⁸ ^, ³⁹	^-
Empty properties, lots and lands	¹³ ^, ¹⁵ ^, ¹⁹ ^, ³⁸ ^, ³⁹ ^, ⁴⁰ ^, ⁴²	²⁰ ^, ⁴³
NEIGHBORHOOD PROBLEMS (n)	2	7
Indecent assault	^-	²²
Bad reputation reported from the neighborhood	^-	¹⁸ ^, ³⁰ ^, ⁴¹
Begging	^-	¹³ ^, ¹⁷
Points of sale and consumption of alcohol	^-	²² ^, ⁵⁹
Points of sale and use of drugs	¹³	¹⁸ ^, ¹⁹ ^, ²² ^, ³⁰ ^, ³¹ ^, ³⁸ ^, ³⁹ ^, ⁴⁰ ^, ⁴¹ ^, ⁴²
Prostitution	^-	¹³ ^, ¹⁷ ^, ¹⁹ ^, ³¹ ^, ³⁸ ^, ³⁹ ^, ⁴⁰ ^, ⁴²
Vandalism	³¹ ^, ³⁸ ^, ³⁹ ^, ⁴⁰ ^, ⁴²	¹⁸ ^, ³⁰ ^, ⁴¹
SECURITY (n)	0	8
Assaults, arguments and offenses	^-	¹³ ^, ²⁰ ^, ²² ^, ⁶²
Assaults, murders and kidnappings	^-	¹⁷ ^, ¹⁸ ^, ³⁰ ^, ³¹ ^, ⁴¹
Noise of gunfire	^-	²⁰
Walk after dark	^-	¹⁸ ^, ³⁰ ^, ⁴¹
Conflicts between neighbors	^-	¹³
Criminals in the neighborhood	^-	¹⁸ ^, ¹⁹ ^, ²⁰ ^, ³¹ ^, ³⁸ ^, ³⁹ ^, ⁴⁰ ^, ⁴²
Problems with the police	^-	¹⁸ ^, ³⁰ ^, ⁴¹
Risk of violence	^-	²²
PUBLICS STREETS (n)	15	2
Holes	¹⁶	^-
Sidewalks	¹² ^, ¹⁷ ^, ¹⁸ ^, ³⁰ ^, ⁴¹	^-
Open sewer	¹²	^-
Displaced electrical wires (hanging, tangled, or knocked down)	²² ^, ⁴⁶	^-
Street lighting	¹² ^, ¹³ ^, ¹⁵ ^, ¹⁷ ^, ¹⁹ ^, ³¹ ^, ³⁸ ^, ³⁹ ^, ⁴⁰ ^, ⁴²	^-
Garbage	¹² ^, ¹³ ^, ¹⁵ ^, ¹⁸ ^, ¹⁹ ^, ²¹ ^, ³⁰ ^, ³¹ ^, ³⁸ ^, ³⁹ ^, ⁴⁰ ^, ⁴¹ ^, ⁴² ^, ⁴⁴ ^, ⁴⁵ ^, ⁴⁶	^16,20,22,43
Bushes	¹⁵ ^, ⁴⁰	²⁰
Curbs	¹²	^-
Paving	¹² ^, ¹⁷	^-
Rats or signs of them	¹⁵	^-
Street gutters	¹²	^-
Public transportation	¹⁸ ^, ³⁰ ^, ⁴¹	^-
Leakage of water, gas and sewer	²²	^-
Abandoned vehicles	²² ^, ⁶²	^-
Traffic speed	¹⁸ ^, ³⁰ ^, ⁴¹	^-

METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES		RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH	INTENDED IMPROVEMENTS
1	Systematic literature review	Use of automated tools, such as text mining	Automatic extraction of concepts and keywords; reviews completed more quickly; to minimize the impact of publication bias; to reduce the chances of losing relevant research; to assess the quality of studies; to produce more timely and reliable reviews
2	Concept of disorder	To standardize the concept of neighborhood disorder, taking into account the observed and perceived physical and social characteristics that may signal a disruption of order and social control	To compare results between studies; to synthesize the evidence; greater understanding
3	Physical disorder variables	To standardize the variables that constitute the construct of physical disorder of the neighborhood, considering that physical disorder is related to the characteristics of the context: variables related to water, air, soil and noise, aesthetics, real estate and public facilities, and public streets	To compare results between studies; to synthesize the evidence; greater understanding
4	Social disorder variables	To standardize the variables that constitute the social disorder construct of the neighborhood, considering that social disorder relates to aspects of interaction between people and the context: variables referring to neighborhood problems and security	To compare results between studies; to synthesize the evidence; greater understanding
5	New methods for measuring disorder	Use of virtual audits, such as Google Street View	Efficient alternative to on-site audits; to assess physical disorder; safe for auditors; shorter time; less financial resources; more study sites (large or distant areas); historical images for longitudinal studies; computer vision models

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[TFN11] NA: not applicable.

[TFN12] * The study adapted the on-site audit strategies using smartphones to apply systematic social observation;

[TFN13] ** Construct validation studies and internal consistency analysis;

[TFN14] *** The outcome of the study was the cumulative homicide rate calculated from the sum of the homicides in the years 2003, 2004, and 2005 divided by the average population size in the three years and then multiplied by 10,000.