English and Portuguese consonant clusters: contrasts and challenges

Consonant clusters occur both in Portuguese and English. However, clusters are more productive in English than in Portuguese and there are sequences which are only found in English.This study focuses on the contrasts between American English and Brazilian Portuguese consonant clusters and on three strategies Brazilian learners tend to apply when producing them: adding the high front vowel (epenthesis) between the consonants in the clusters, discarding consonants, or introducing phonetic changes. The relevance of introducing English clusters to Brazilian learners of English is pointed out and discussed under the framework of the Speech Learning Model (SLM).

Keywords:
English consonant clusters; Brazilian consonant clusters; English as L2; language input

Authorship

Sandra Madureira

Pontifícia Universidade Católica da São Paulo, São Paulo - Brasil. E-mail: sandra.madureira.liaac@gmail.com.Pontifícia Universidade Católica da São PauloBrasilSão Paulo, BrasilPontifícia Universidade Católica da São Paulo, São Paulo - Brasil. E-mail: sandra.madureira.liaac@gmail.com.

http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8263-053X

SCIMAGO INSTITUTIONS RANKINGS

Figures | Tables | Formulas

Figures (8)
Tables (20)
Formulas (6)

Portuguese syllable patterns	English syllable patterns
V	V
CV	CV
VC	VC
CVV	CVV
VCC	VCC
CVC	CVC
CCV	CCV
CVCC	CVCC
CVVC	CVVC
CCVC	CCVC
CCVV	CCVV
CCVVC	CCVVC
CCVCC	CCVCC
	VCCC
	CCCVC
	CCVCC
	VCCCC
	CCVCCC
	CVCCCC
	CCCVCC
	CCVVCC
	CCCVCCC

Postulates
P1	The mechanisms and processes used in learning the L1 sound system, including category formation, remain intact over the lifespan, and can be applied to L2 learning.
P2	Language-specific aspects of speech sounds are specified in long-term memory representations called phonetic categories.
P3	Phonetic categories established in childhood for L1 sounds evolve over the life span to reflect the properties of all L1 or L2 phones identified as a realization of each category.
P4	Bilinguals strive to maintain contrast between L1 and L2 phonetic categories, which exist in a common phonological space.
Hypotheses
H1	Sounds in the L1 and L2 are related perceptually to one another at a position sensitive allophonic level, rather than at a more abstract phonemic level.
H2	A new phonetic category can he established for an L2 sound that differs phonetically from the closest L1 sound if bilinguals discern at least some of the phoneticdifferences betweenthe L1 andL2 sounds.
H3	The greater the perceived phonetic dissimilarity between an L2 sounds and the closest L1 sound, the more likely it is that phonetic differences between the sounds will be discerned.
H4	The likelihood of phonetic differences between L1 and L2 sounds, and between L2 sounds that are noncontrastive in the L1, being discerned decreases as AOL increases.
H5	Category formation for an L2 sound may be blocked by the mechanism of equivalence classification. When this happens, a single phonetic category will be used to process perceptually linked L1 and L2 sounds (diaphones). Eventually the diaphones will resemble one another in production.
H6	The phonetic category established for L2 sounds by a bilingual may differ from a monolingual’s if: (1) the bilingual’s category is “deflected” away from an L1 category to maintain phonetic contrast between categories in a common L1-L2 phonological space; or (2) the bilingual’s representation is based on different features, or feature weights, than a monolingual’s.
H7	The production of a sound eventually corresponds to the properties represented in its phonemic category representation.
P = Postulate H = Hypothesis AOL = Age of Leaning

English	Portuguese
/pr/ primitive	/pr/ primitivo
/tr/ translation	/tr/ tradução
/kr/ crater	/kr/ cratera
/br/ Brazil	/br/ Brasil
/dr/ drama	/dr/ drama
/gr/ graduation	/gr/ graduação
/θr/ three	____________
/fr/ fruit	/fr/ fruta
/ʃr/ shrimp	____________

English	Portuguese
/pl/ plant	/pl/ planta
/kl/ classic	/kl/ clássico
/bl/ block	/bl/ bloco
/gl/ glory	/gl/ glória
/sl/ slav	__________
/fl/ flora	/fl/ flora
/ʃl/ schlub	__________
/kv/ kvetcher	__________

English	Portuguese
/pj/ puberty	____________
/kj/ cuticle	____________
/bj/ beautiful	____________
/gj/ gewgaw	____________
/fj/ fume	____________
/vj/ view	____________
/θj/ thew	____________
/hj/ huge	____________
/mj/ municipal	____________
/pw/ Puerto Rican
/tw/ twenty
/kw/ quality	/kw/ qualidade
/bw/ bwana	_____________
/dw/ dwell	_____________
/gw/ guarani	/gw/ guarani
/sw/ swell	_____________
/ʃw/ shwa	_____________
/hw/ when	_____________
/θw/ thwack	_____________

English	Portuguese
/sp/ span	____________
/st/ state	____________
/sk/ sky	____________
/sf/ sphere	____________
/sm/ smart	____________
/sn/ snore	____________
/sl/ slav	____________
/sv/ svelt	____________
/ʃm/ schmoo	____________
/spr/ sprout	____________
/str/ street	____________
/skr/ screen	____________
/spl/ splay	____________
/skl/ sclerotic	____________
/skw/ squat	____________
/spy/ spew	____________
/sky/ skew	____________

English	Portuguese
/sp/ dispute	disputa
/st/ destitute	destituir
/sk/ discourtesy	descortesia
/sb/ asbestos	____________
/sd/ disdain	____________
/sg/ disgrace	____________
/sp/ despair	disparate
/st/ constitute	constituinte
/sk/ ascorbic	ascórbico
/sm/ osmosis	____________
/sʒ/ disjoint	____________
/sl/ dislocate	____________
/sr/ disrespect	desrepeitar
/sj/ disunite	____________
/sw/ unswept	____________
/str/ distribute	distribuir
/spl/ resplendecent	resplandecente
/stl/ wrestler	____________
/skr/ description	descrição
/sfr/ disfranchise	esfregar

English	Portuguese
/bj/ abusive	____________
/gj/ legume	____________
/fj/ refuse	____________
/mj/ ammunition	____________
/pj/ amputate	____________
/kj/ osculate	____________
/kw/ unqualified	/kw/ inqualificável

English	Portuguese
/pl/ diplomacy	/pl/ diplomacia
/bl/ oblique	/bl/ oblíquo
/kl/ aclimatize	/kl/ aclimatizar
/gl/ inglorius	/gl/ inglório
/fl/ reflexive	/fl/ reflexivo
/θl/ breathless	__________
/t ʃl/ matchless	__________

English	Portuguese
/pr/ oppress	/pr/ oprimir
/tr/ attract	/tr/ atrair
/kr/ across	/kr/ acreditar
/br/ abrupt	/br/ abrupto
/gr/ retrograde	/gr/ retrogrado
/dr/ adrenalin	/dr/ adrenalina
/θr/ thrilling	____________
/fr/ front	/fr/ afrontar
/sr/ enshrine	____________
/vr/ every	____________
/lrdw/ worldwide	____________

/rs/ marshals	marcha
/rk/ merchants	____________
/rm/ murmur	murmurar
/rn/ turning	tornar
/rl/ forlorn	____________
/rt/ portent	portento
/rsl/ ierceless	_____________
/rh/ overhead	_____________
/rs/ arsenal	arsenal
/rd/ sordid	sordido
/rps/ adsorption	_____________
/ror/ arthritis	_____________
/rv/ service	serviço
/rθ/ seaworthy	______________

/kspr/ express	/bg/ hobgloblin
/ksp/ expert	/bs/ absolete
/kspl/ explain	/dg/ mudguard
/ktf/ respectful	/tb/ hatbox
/kspl/ explore	/tp/ hotpot
/kskw/ exquisite	/bm/ submerge
/kstr/ extra	/ps/ shipshape
/kskr/ excrete	/pc/ scripture
/kskl/ exclaim	/bt/ obtain
/kt/ victorious	/df/ handfull
/kb/ blackboard	/tl/ cutlass
/kz/ exzema	/tn/ witness
/km/ blackmail	/bd/ subdued
/kn/ hackneyed	/kskl/ exclaim
/btr/ obtrude	/tkr/ outcry
/bstr/ abstract	/bs/ absorb

/mp/ impute	/nf/ unfair	/nbr/ unbruised
/mf/ triumphant	/nv/ envious	/ngr/ engrave
/mpt ʃ / sumptuous	/ns/ answer	/nkr/ uncrowded
/mpl/ complex	/nz/ enzyme	/nfr/ unframed
/mbld/ stumbled	/n θ/ unthankful	/nst/ instant
/mpr/ impress	/nh/ unhealthy	/n θr/ enthral
/mbr/ embrace	/nt ʃ / uncharted	/nskr/ inscribe
/mpstr/ semstress	/n ʒ / enjoy	/nstr/ instruct
/mb/ number	/ns/ unshape	/npl/ unpleasant
/ms/ themselves	/nkl/ conclude	/ndzm/ groundsman
/np/ unpleasant	/nl/ enliven	/ŋkw/ banquet
/nt/ entangle	/nj/ union	/ŋkj/ incubate
/nk/ unkind	/nw/ unwept	/ŋg/ finger
/nb/ unbound	/ntr/ intrude	/ŋd/ kingdom
/nd/ tendency	/ndr/ undrinkable	/ŋk/ monkey
/ng/ ungoverned	/npr/ unprocessed	/ŋkl/ conclude

English	Portuguese
/sb/ asbestos	asbesto
/zd/ ________	desdém
/sd/ disdain	______
/zm/ osmosis	osmose
/zn/	asneira
/zr/ Israel	israelita

/sp/ clasp	/pt/ adopt	/pθ/ depth
/sk/ risk	/ks/ tax	/ ŋ θ/ length
/sts/ chests	/ps/ lapse	/ksθ/ sixth
/fts/ lifts	/ts/ blitz	/fθ/ fifth
/kts/ facts	/ksts/ texts	/dθ/ width

/rf/ dwarf	/rl/ snard
/rps/ warps	/rbd/ absorbed
/rt ʃt / arched	/rʒd/ charged
/rvd/ carved	/rsh/ harsh
/rnd/ warned	/rθ/ hearth
/rst/ forced	/rks/ marks
/rmd/ armed	/rgd/ morgued
/rts/ parts	/rdz/ cords

/ ŋ ks/ thanks	/nks/ jinx
/mpt/ stamped	/mps/ glimpse
/mft/ triumphed	/nθ/ hyacinth
/ŋkts/ instincts	/mpts/ tempts
/nts/ wants	/nd/ rand
/nt ʃ / lunch	/nst/ danced
/nz/ bronze	/nθ/ tenth
/zndθ/ thousandth	/nʒd/ changed

/lz/ Charles	/rsts/ bursts
/rks/ Marx	/rps/ corpse
/lks/ Wilkes	/lkts/ mulct
/rl ds/ worlds	/rnt/ aren’t
/rts/ quartz	/rpts/ excerpts
/lts/ waltz	/lfθs/ twelfths
/rmθ/ warmth

INITIAL CLUSTERS	ENGLISH	PORTUGUESE
	C² + V________	C² + V________
	C² + velar/palatal approximant + V _______	C¹ + velar approximant + V_______
	C³ + V_______	________
MEDIAL CLUSTERS	____V + C² + velar/palatal	____V + C¹ + /w/+V_____
	approximants + V____	____V + voiceless alveolar fricative + C²_____
	/y/	____V + C² + V______
	____V + voiceless alveolar fricative + C²_____	____ NV + C³_____
	____V + C4 + V______
	____V + nasal + C4 + V___
FINAL CLUSTERS	_______V + C³	_______V + C²