A reflection on the role of women in Science, Dentistry and Brazilian Orthodontics

ABSTRACT Introduction: This paper reviews the history of women scientists in the ‘Western world’, whilst highlighting the persistent socio-structural issues that have led to the hiding and masking of the participation of women in Science. Further, a reflection is made of the situation of Dentistry, specifically in the field of Orthodontics in Brazil. The difference between genders is discussed, with the intention to map the progress of women in management and leadership positions, in both the academic and professional fields. Description: In Brazil, within Dentistry and Orthodontics, despite being in a numerical majority, women are still underrepresented in the area of professional leadership. This is true for Research Groups and Research Productivity; an example being the relatively low authorship of publications in a Brazilian journal of Orthodontics. They are also underrepresented as lead presenters at professional meetings, whilst there are also few female Presidents of professional organizations and associations. Conclusion: Despite being in a numerical majority, it is also important that women act in a more co-ordinated and consistent manner to achieve greater representation in these areas. The necessary changes in the structure in order to achieve this are not only of women and for women, but they must also involve the whole of society so that leadership, rights and duties are equally distributed between the genders.


INTRODUCTION
Studies analyzing the participation of women in the history of Science are a relatively recent occurence. 1 Certainly, women have actively contributed to the progress of Science, in several fields, in the various periods of Western history. 1,2 Due to social structure and concepts imposed by society, their names were often not widely known. Commonly they remained in the shadow of a brother, husband or male co-worker who received the credit for the work. This explains, in part, why so few women have been recognized amongst the ranks of the great scientists. Certainly, historically, there was no shortage of women scientists, but many have been "forgotten" 2 . Since the research history has been predominantly recorded by men, women have been made almost "invisible". This was an issue that was particularly identified after the 1960s. This problem also appears to have occurred in the academic area, where the female presence was largely restricted to a supporting role, as conditioned by the ideology and social structure of the time -it was part of the culture. 1 However, latterly reviews historians have revealed that women did have a very relevant role in Science 3 . If one revisits history, women can be credited with many of the advances in early agriculture, over the period of 8000 to 4000 years BC (prehistoric period), see Table 1. Women can also be identified amongst the first pharmacologists, discovering, by observation, attempt and experimentation, the various therapeutic effects of plants. The knowledge accumulated over millennia constituted almost the entire pharmacopoeia until the advent of therapeutic chemistry. 2 In Antique period, women carried an essential part of scientific and technical progress. Certain periods were marked by cults and legends, in which women played a remarkable role as goddesses and figures associated with alchemy and agriculture, which, not by chance, symbolized fertility. The first names of female 'scientists' recorded in history are from Assyria and Egypt. However, it was in Mesopotamia that women had some autonomy, with the possibility of owning their own lands, businesses whilst occupying important functions such as magistrates. However, the scientific work of ancient Greece was largely reported by the misogynist vision of Aristotle, for whom women were inferior on the spiritual plane, reporting that they had a smaller brain and even suggesting they had a different number of teeth in comparison with men. However, not all Greek philosophers were misogynistic in their outlook. Socrates and Plato accepted intellectual equality and pleaded for women to receive the same education as men. In the schools of Pythagoras (570-495 BC), which focused on the study of Mathematics, Astronomy, Natural Sciences and Philosophy, women were admitted. In Athens, Plato continued the Pythagorean tradition, accepting women in his classrooms, yet due to Athenian laws, they had to dress as men. Also, in Greek cities, women practiced Medicine, but over time they were limited to the practice of Gynecology. In Rome, women benefited from a relatively favorable status compared to Athenians, where since 450 BC the girls were reported to have received a basic education, learning to read, write and perform mathematics. Also, female doctors were considered equal to their male colleagues, a unique situation in history, which would only occur again in the 20 th century. 2 In the middle ages, the repression of women in the intellectual   4 , who put the question of women's education at the center of this debate, against the accepted notion of their physical, intellectual and moral weakness (Fig 1).
Christine stated that "if girls received the same education as boys and if they were methodically taught sciences, they would learn and understand the difficulties of all arts and all sciences  The Scientific Revolution raised an unexpected enthusiasm for the whole subject and the related experimental method, with a multiplication of courses on these themes. Women actively participated in this movement, making important contributions, although it often generated criticism. The notion that the perceived defects assigned to women were due to the lack of education they received was gaining more credence and followers. 5 After the 17 th century, with the advent of industrial capitalism, the social responsibility of men for production and women for repro- In the 19 th century, significant changes occurred in the production process and organization of activities, with the consolidation of capitalism, which ended up expanding the need for female work. 6 In the 20 th century, the advent of the two World Wars also facilitated the insertion of female labor, due to the need to replace the contingent of recruited male workers. However, women were exploited and subjected to subhuman working conditions, with long hours and receiving much lower wages than men. The ideological rationale for this, at the time, was that women had or should have someone to support them. However, socially, the woman was still responsible for the family dynamics and all duties related to it. Therefore, emancipation was only partial, resulting in the accumulation of double working hours, causing a significant disadvantage compared to men in the labor market. 6 Some misogynistic views persist into the 21 st century. In 2005, Larry Summers, Dean of Harvard University, pointed out that the discrepancy could be related to the innate abilities of men compared to women, i.e., males would have a more naturally acquired aptitude for Science than females, 3,6 in other words,

THE SCENARIO OF WOMEN IN BRAZIL IN THE 19 TH AND 20 TH CENTURIES
For nearly 450 years, there was a significant difference in schooling between Brazilian women and men, due to the prevailing social structure at the time. It is important to revisit the past to understand the historical context of the existing social structure and its influence on the role of women in society.
In the period between the end of the Second Empire (1840-1889) and the early 1920s, the city of Rio de Janeiro, the capital and most important city in Brazil at that time, was site to several movements, due to political and social dissatisfaction.
The lower classes of the population were illiterate, with little political participation and no voting rights. The same was true for women, who were ultimately considered irrational, submissive and unable to discern public issues. Legally, they were subject to the father or husband, having no individual rights, freedom of conscience, thought, expression, religion, as well as mobility, work and management over patrimonial and heritage resources. 9 During the Old Republic (1889 to 1930) women were considered different from men, not only in physical characteristics, but also in moral and psychological terms. Thus, women were seen as unstable and subjected to interventions from the environment, which could alter their normal development, the achievement of labor and political rights, such as the right to vote. As an example of these changes, separation is mentioned, which was instituted in the Civil Code in 1942, establishing the separation without dissolving the marriage bond, yet this condition was not socially well accepted. 11 In 1943, the Brazilian law granted permission for married women to work outside home without the "express authorization of the husband". 11 The country was blooming, industrializing and in need of labor force, and women began to take up new work fronts.
Conversely, their presence was advocated exclusively at home, as housewives and mothers. 10 However, institutional and social changes continued to occur.
In the 1960s, the feminist movement gained strength. In 1962, twenty years after the introduction of separation, the Statute of Married Women came into force, which recognized her condition as one of "companion, consort, collaborator of the family's responsibilities, responsible for ensuring its material and moral direction". This was undoubtedly an advance in relation to the Civil Code of 1916, which considered women "incapable". 11 Also, after the 1960s, women in Brazil started to have access to more efficient contraceptive means (birth control pill, in 1962).    After 2010, there has been predominance of women in nearly all groups. Analyzing the total number of students graduating from the PhD Course at UFRJ (Fig 3), 52.2% are males and 47.8%, females. balancing. It should be noted that the insertion of women into the Academy began a long time after men. Therefore, when     Researchers of CNPq (Fig 4).   Only in the last two modalities, the percentage of women was lower than men. 12 In 2019, women represented only 24% of Research Productivity Scholars, considering all fields of knowledge. 22 In the case of Dentistry and also Orthodontics, there is still a predominance of males as Productivity Researchers (CNPq) (Fig 4). Why do women researchers, dentists, and orthodontists, with a high scientific productivity, fundraising capacity, a greater training in human resources and with a higher  The WFO has had 6 presidents since its establishment, all men.
Conversely, ABOR also had 6 presidents, being one woman.
Currently, of the 22 regional offices of ABOR, 15 are directed by men and 7 by women ( Table 6).
The Brazilian Board of Orthodontics (BBO) 28 25 and ABOR 26 (National and Regional Boards). All presidents of ABOR Congresses in the last 10 years (Table 7) were men. Only in 2022 the ABOR congress will have a woman as president.   Proportionally to the obstacles observed, the number of women in Science at all times is relatively large, and it would be totally erroneous to think that scientific and technological progress occurred without them. 2 In the particular case of Dentistry and Orthodontics in Brazil, women's access to the Academy and to the job market occurred significantly after men, besides being guided by socio-structural issues, many of which are still present today.
There has been great progress and today women are present in all fields of Science, although there is no parity between genders. Since biologically they lead the pregnancy, and socially they are considered responsible for the process of child education and raising, women tend to be marginalized from the productive process, and consequently from strategic occupations. The social structure still considers compulsory motherhood and exclusive dedication as necessary for the scientific career, generating exclusion. 2 Historical causes and social factors still preclude from perceiving their importance and potential in organizations, 6 hindering or impeding their progression. There does not seem to be an explicit prejudice, but many men continue to act to guarantee the male have imposed a law on companies that obliges them to reserve a 40% quota for women in fiscal councils. 6 Initiatives as ongoing educational campaigns in Brazil, which encourage girls to become scientists, as well as programs to discuss unconscious prejudices are necessary. 22 The indicators presented in this paper should serve as an alert for reflection, since any exclusion can be a form of violence, causing frustration and suffering. 2 We cannot remain insensitive to the inequalities of our time, not only in the field of Science, but also in how our society is structured. There are many challenges to overcome the "invisibility" of women and this requires awareness of all, especially of women, regarding the change in posture and social structure often favored by themselves, so that the next generations may live in a situation with greater equality of opportunities. Women are already in a numerical majority in Dentistry and Orthodontics, but more important than that is to act more consistently. The necessary changes in the structure are not only of women and for women, but must involve the entire society, so that rights and duties are distributed equally between genders, while respecting the peculiarities inherent to each person.