Nexus between reverse logistics and municipal waste management: analysis of implementation in municipalities of the state of São Paulo, BrazilABSTRACT
Municipal Solid Waste Management Plans and reverse logistics systems are instruments defined in the Brazilian National Solid Waste Policy for eschewing landfill disposal in favor of non-generation, reduction, reuse, recycling, and energy recovery, in that order. Reverse logistics is a major challenge in Brazil due to regional diversity, country size, waste generation rates, and historical management deficiencies, with landfill disposal still being the main municipal solid waste strategy. Additionally, recycling depends heavily on waste pickers, who mostly work informally. Municipalities are required to have a Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan to receive federal funds and invest in waste management projects. It must contain a detailed diagnosis of waste generated in the municipality, management strategies, goals, and control mechanisms. Municipal Solid Waste Management Plans must include requirements for reverse logistics system implementation, as the absence of clear details on how such systems work can hinder reverse logistics progress. To identify how Municipal Solid Waste Management Plans address reverse logistics systems, the plans of 40 municipalities in the state of São Paulo were analyzed. Reverse logistics systems for electronics, batteries, light bulbs, medicines, waste tires, and assorted packaging were found to be at different implementation stages. Overall, plans address reverse logistics superficially, with no goals established. They also lack mechanisms to integrate different players and environmental education programs, which are fundamental to fostering citizen participation.
Keywords:
solid waste management; municipal plans; municipal solid waste; shared responsibility
INTRODUCTION
Brazil generates approximately 77 million tons of municipal solid waste (MSW) per year (baseline 2022), which corresponds to 1.03 kg.inhabitant1.day-1 (ABREMA, 2023). Solid waste management is regulated by Federal Law 12,305 of 2010, which instituted the National Solid Waste Policy (NSWP), and by Federal Decree 10,936 of 2022. Among the instruments established by law, solid waste plans and reverse logistics systems (RLSs) stand out in the scope of this study (Brasil, 2010a).
The NSWP defines reverse logistics (RL) as an "instrument of economic and social development that includes actions, procedures, and means to enable waste collection and its return to the business sector for reuse in its own cycle, in another production cycle, or any other environmentally appropriate destination" (Brasil, 2010a). RL chains encompass several actors with specific roles: consumers must return end-of-life (EoL) products and packaging to traders or distributors who, in turn, return them to manufacturers or importers; it is up to them to properly dispose of the waste. Manufacturers, importers, distributors, and traders must implement procedures for purchasing used products or packaging, provide reusable and recyclable waste drop-off centers, and partner with cooperatives and other associations of waste pickers (Brasil, 2022a).
RLSs can be institutionalized by government regulations, sectoral agreements, or terms of commitment. The last two are contractual in nature, entered into between the government and the business sector. Sectoral agreements have a national scope and must foresee the participation of all actors involved, requiring public consultation and feasibility studies, among other aspects. Besides, RLSs must not depend on public services for urban cleaning and solid waste management. However, public services may occasionally assume some of the activities by entering into a sectoral agreement or a term of commitment with the business sector. In this case, the agreement must provide financial resources for actions carried out by the government (Brasil, 2010a; Brasil, 2022a).
The implementation of RLSs is carried out by management entities, which are companies created and managed by production sectors (e.g., tire, electronics, and pharmaceutical industries) (Brasil, 2023), and usually provide and maintain drop-off centers (designated collection points for receiving end-of-life products from retailers and consumers), and structure reverse distribution channels. Accordingly, the local government and society are key agents for reinserting EoL goods into production cycles. They must be involved in all stages of the process, including drafting regulations and agreements (Pereira and Ribeiro, 2021).
Efficient MSW management is crucial for fostering more circular cities, which adopt measures to extend the useful life of materials as much as possible, reducing resource consumption and waste generation. Therefore, Municipal Solid Waste Management Plans (MSWMP) must outline coordination mechanisms that connect citizens (waste generators), private companies, cooperatives and waste pickers, and management entities responsible for RL. Municipalities must also promote environmental awareness and educational actions to encourage society participation in selective waste collection programs (Moraes et al., 2022).
However, RLS implementation in Brazil is challenging due to its territorial extension, regional logistics particularities (Mancini et al., 2021), lack of knowledge of consumers and retailers about NSWP and waste management, scarcity of collection centers, absence of municipal waste management plans, and lack of sustainability in waste pickers’ organizations (Castro et al., 2022). Santos and Ogunseitan (2022) also point out the need to connect players into a single process to increase recycling capacity and promote waste reduction policies. In particular, waste pickers, appointed by the NSWP as the key players in RLS activities, should be formally integrated into such systems (Ghisolfi et al., 2017; Zon et al., 2020).
Several recent studies have focused on RL in Brazil, specifically on waste from electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) (Caiado et al., 2017; Dias et al., 2022; Santana et al., 2021; Santos and Ogunseitan, 2022), spent batteries (Castro; Cutaia and Vaccari, 2021; Castro et al., 2022), unused and expired medicines (Lima et al., 2022; Silva et al., 2022), waste tires (Bittencourt et al., 2020), and aspects associated with the participation of waste pickers (Ferri, Chaves and Ribeiro, 2015; Ghisolfi et al., 2017). However, few studies analyze RLS implementation at the municipal level for EoL products commonly found in MSW. Thus, this study outlines an overview of RLS implementation and operation in municipalities in the state of São Paulo that are part of the Intermunicipal Consortium of the Piracicaba, Capivari, and Jundiaí Rivers Basin (PCJ Consortium). It also addresses the programs, actions, and strategies connected to the RL of these types of waste contained in MSWMPs.
METHODS
Study Region: Piracicaba, Capivari, and Jundiaí Rivers Basin
Serving about 5 million inhabitants, the Piracicaba, Capivari, and Jundiaí River, and Jundiaí River(s Basin (PCJ basin) is located in a politically and economically strategic, highly industrialized region that accounts for about 7% of the Brazilian Gross Domestic Product. The PCJ Consortium is a private, non-profit association composed of municipalities and companies. Its main goal is to raise awareness of the importance of preserving water resources, and it plans and take actions to recover water sources in its coverage area. The consortium was founded on October 13, 1989, and the basin committee was created in 1993 (Consórcio PCJ, 2023).
The PCJ basin has an area of 15,377.81 km², covering 76 municipalities, of which 62 are headquartered in drainage areas of the region; 58 are located in the state of São Paulo, occupying 92.45% of the total basin area.
Analysis of Municipal Solid Waste Management Plans
This study analyzed the MSWMPs of 40 municipalities in the state of São Paulo that participate in the PCJ Consortium. Taken together, these municipalities have a population of 4,868,275 inhabitants. Of these municipalities, 23 are considered small, 16 are medium-sized, and one is large. The human development index (HDI) of these municipalities ranges from 0.699 to 0.819 (IBGE, 2022a), and the per capita MSW generation rates range from 0.58 kg−1day−1 to 1.88 kg−1day−1. From 2017 to 2021, MSW generation increased by 4,164.81 tons−1 day−1 to 4,514.81 tons−1 day−1 (Brasil, 2019; Cetesb, 2017; 2021).
MSWMPs were surveyed initially through the website of the former Environmental Planning Coordination of the State of São Paulo. For municipalities whose plans were not available on the website, a search was conducted on their official website. It was found that among the 40 municipalities under study, 14 participate in three distinct intermunicipal consortia (in this case, three intermunicipal solid waste management plans were analyzed), six municipalities have their MSWMPs integrated into a Municipal Basic Sanitation Plan (MBSP), five have their MBSPs with a chapter dedicated to urban cleaning and waste management, and one did not have any waste management plan. It is worth noting that one municipality, part of an intermunicipal consortium, also has its own MSWMP. In this case, this plan was also analyzed. Then, considering all the 29 plans were analyzed. Table S1 in the Supplementary Material shows detailed information on MSW generation rates, MSWMP type, and the respective plan dates (and updates, if any) for all municipalities.
The study specifically investigated RLS for six main waste streams: household WEEE and its components; fluorescent, sodium vapor, mercury vapor, and mixed light bulbs; batteries; waste tires; medicines, their waste, and packaging; and packaging in general, including steel and aluminum beverage cans. To this end, information extracted from the MSWMP was complemented with data collected from sectoral associations and existing management entities involved in the RLSs of these wastes. Also, documents (e.g., laws, decrees, sectoral agreements) related to the implementation of RLSs for the waste streams considered in the study were identified and assessed (Table 1) to support the analysis and discussion of the results.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The data and information gathered in the plans were analyzed and organized into two sections:
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RLS actions effectively implemented in the municipalities; and
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forms and limits of local government participation in RLs.
RLS Actions Implemented
The 29 plans were analyzed to identify the characteristics of the actions effectively implemented in the municipalities regarding the proper disposal of WEEE, light bulbs, batteries, tires, used or expired medications, and packaging. Actions related to waste collection and disposal identified in the municipalities vary depending on the type of waste:
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WEEE: 12 plans (41%) do not describe any treatment; in 11 plans (38%), the public sector is responsible for collecting the material; in three plans (10.5%), collection is carried out by the public sector, with private companies being responsible for material removal and processing; and in three plans (10.5%), the public sector carries out the collection along with private drop-off centers (without any costs for the municipality), with private companies collecting and treating this waste.
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Light bulbs: the most common initiatives are waste collection by the public sector, mentioned in 10 plans (34.5%); seven plans (24.1%) report waste collection and storage by the public sector and subsequent removal by a private company for processing, treatment, and recycling; two plans (7%) mention waste collection and decontamination carried out by private companies, and 10 plans (34.5%) do not report any action.
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Batteries: 12 plans (41%) do not describe any actions; 10 plans (34.5%) attribute the responsibility for waste collection to the local government, without informing the destination; two plans (7%) declare that the government collects the waste, which is later processed in private companies; in three plans (10.5%), all management stages are carried out by private companies; and two plans (7%) mention that collection is carried out by a private company with support from the public sector.
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Tires: waste tires have the most consolidated management practices, and 14 plans (48.3%) report that management entities send for processing the material collected by municipal public services; six plans (20.7%) report door-to-door collection by the municipality or waste disposal in drop-off centers by waste generators themselves, without detailing the final destination; two plans (7%) report that management entities collect waste for final disposal, and seven plans (24%) do not mention any initiative.
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Medicines: actions for unused and expired medicines are practically absent, since 24 plans (82.8%) do not mention this type of waste. One plan (3.4%) mentions that collection is carried out by the public sector for proper disposal, but does not mention how and where it occurs; one plan (3.4%) describes municipal collection, with waste removal and treatment carried out by a private company; and three plans describe that municipalities have voluntary drop-off centers in public and private pharmacies, and the medicines are collected by a company hired by the municipality (10.3%).
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Packaging: this waste is classified as dry waste and usually makes up household waste. Therefore, it is usually collected by municipal collection systems. Five plans (17%) report a collection system for packaging through selective waste collection, urban cleaning services, or drop-off centers. While the other 24 (83%) do not describe actions for the specific collection of this waste.
Figure 1 summarizes how RL waste is collected in the municipalities, and Figure 2 shows the distribution of drop-off centers by waste category.
Reverse logistics system collection schemes mentioned in Municipal Solid Waste Management Plans.
Batteries and WEEE are the waste streams with more collection centers, although RLSs for these waste streams were only regulated in 2020 (Brasil, 2020a). It should be noted that Brazil is among the world's largest consumers of electronics due to an increase in domestic market size, combined with credit incentives and tax exemptions (Green Eletron, 2023; Migliano; Demajorovic and Xavier, 2014; Oliveira; Bernardes and Gerbase, 2012). The country is also the fifth largest WEEE generator (Baldé et al., 2024). Therefore, expanding collection centers for this waste is crucial to reduce mineral extraction and recycling costs, which often exceed the value of recovered materials (Castro; Cutaia and Vaccari, 2021).
As for light bulbs, more than half of municipalities have at least one specific collection center; however, they must advance light bulb RL practices, since sectoral agreements have already been in place for 10 years. Rebehy et al. (2019) point out that post-consumer light bulbs have no value and, thus, waste pickers and other actors have no interest in this type of waste. Hence, municipalities, along with the production sector, must prioritize awareness campaigns and the availability of collection centers to avoid environmental contamination by mercury and other substances.
Most municipalities have collection centers for waste tires, probably due to system and managing entity consolidation (Reciclanip, 2024). These were established even before the enactment of the NSWP. However, most of these municipalities have, at best, two collection centers. This indicates that possibly not all waste tires are sent to RLSs. In this sense, and considering the increase in the country's vehicle fleet in recent years, Bittencourt et al. (2020) suggest a predictive method to identify unknown flows of waste tires in municipalities, so local waste management entities take actions to send this waste stream to RLSs.
In terms of the number of municipalities with at least one collection center, medicines come next, as most municipalities have three or more. The broad presence of pharmacies and drugstores throughout Brazil may be one of the reasons for the large number of drug collection centers, as citizens can easily access these establishments.
All classes of packaging addressed in this study have a limited number of collection centers in the region. However, terms of commitment for steel and aluminum packaging are relatively recent. Packaging sectoral agreements date back to 2015, but they are still poorly developed in municipalities, possibly because no strategies have been implemented to promote segregation of this waste from other household waste streams. This limitation compromises the efficiency of selective waste collection and, consequently, recycling. As highlighted by Guarnieri, Cerqueira-Streit and Batista (2020), the implementation of packaging sectoral agreements in Brazil faces operational challenges due to the different actors involved. Thus, waste pickers are fundamental to recovering packaging entering the MSW flow. Also, being organized into cooperatives with adequate infrastructure is crucial for them to formally participate in sectoral agreements. Another important issue, emphasized by Ferri, Chaves and Ribeiro (2015), is the creation of an RL network linked to MSWM to assist in fulfilling NSWP legal requirements and promote the inclusion of waste pickers.
Furthermore, except for waste tires, RL initiatives come mainly from the government, and in most cases, municipalities only collect and sort the material. Thus, they end up assuming responsibility for services that would otherwise be assumed by product importers, manufacturers, distributors, and traders. The government should only assist, not lead, RLS implementation, since it is independent of the public urban cleaning service.
When the plan does not say whether the municipality manages any waste stream, in the best-case scenario, it can be inferred that the material is sent to landfills. The NSWP made it mandatory to quantify the generation of waste subject to RL, but, in general, municipalities lack adequate tools to do so. The impossibility of determining the amount of waste effectively sent for processing or landfilling hinders the establishment of parameters for future projections, as highlighted by Bittencourt et al. (2020).
Four types of measures were defined based on the information contained in the MSWMPs (Figure 3). Most actions are associated with the RLS implementation process, followed by operational actions, such as collection and disposal. Together, they represent more than 50% of total actions identified. Monitoring actions — inspection, database maintenance, registrations, and control measures — are essential to verify the efficiency of actions taken in the context of RLSs. However, they are scarce in the plans, which makes it difficult to identify points for improvement in the systems.
Classification and quantification by subtypes of actions mentioned in reverse logistics systems.
The municipal plans also do not provide specific goals concerning deadlines or percentages of service coverage. Only seven municipalities have established explicit goals for collection and final disposal ("collect and dispose 100% of the waste to RLSs"), and one restricts this goal to waste generated in municipal agencies. As for actions of various nature, one municipality establishes the goal of "eliminating 100% of irregular disposal," which is not exclusively aligned with waste streams subject to RL.
Forms and limits of local government participation in RL
Three factors were analyzed separately to evaluate this aspect:
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presence of drop-off centers and the actor responsible for them;
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participation of cooperatives; and
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environmental education programs/actions involving RL.
Most plans (21) mention programs and/or actions to promote adequate waste management, and in 19 of these, the government provides drop-off centers for temporary waste storage. The other two plans report programs and/or actions for waste collection, but do not mention the existence of collection points, nor detail whether there is a partnership with private institutions for such actions. Also, 14 of the 19 plans report the existence of drop-off centers and indicate that the government is solely responsible. In the other five municipalities, private institutions such as banks, supermarkets, and gas stations contribute by providing adequate waste storage containers.
Among the 19 plans that foresee waste collection, 14 report participation of manufacturers, importers, and distributors; three do not indicate such action; and two did not provide information about it. However, eight of the 14 plans report that support is provided only for waste tire management; four receive support for management of waste tires and other wastes, such as light bulbs and/or batteries; and two do not mention any agreement with the tire management entity, but receive contributions for managing light bulbs and batteries. The participation of cooperatives and associations of waste pickers mainly occurs in waste collection, transportation, and sorting. However, six municipalities, including the largest one, do not mention such a partnership.
Environmental education programs are necessary to raise public awareness, but only seven plans mention the existence of such programs. Figure 4 summarizes the analysis of RL programs and actions developed in the municipalities.
Government participation in selective waste collection consists of establishing procedures. However, only seven out of the 29 plans analyzed establish them. Moreover, the government must prioritize the participation of cooperatives, associations, and autonomous waste pickers in the collection of recyclable waste; 22 plans demonstrate this concern.
Finally, it was verified whether the municipal plans had evidence that selective waste collection is carried out without hindering the implementation and operationalization of RLSs, and vice versa. In 12 plans, implementation and operationalization of selective waste collection are not related to the RLS, so both can be carried out together or separately without prejudice. Nine municipal plans enable RL waste collection from selective waste collection or collection of bulky/unusable waste, and even so, one activity does not interfere with the other. Figure 5 shows the instruments for implementing RLSs considered in each municipality. A total of 18 municipal plans indicate the existence of drop-off centers for reusable and recyclable RL waste. As for the post-consumer approach, only one plan declares it has two programs to establish procedures for the purchase of used products and packaging.
Figure 6 outlines a timeline showing the dates RL regulations were created and the MSWMP creation or revision dates for each municipality. It is worth noting that the highest number of MSWMPs released or updated in 2012-2015 (17 of 29) might cover some provisions of the NSWP. These provisions established the requirement for municipalities to develop these plans starting in 2012, as a condition for receiving waste management funds from the federal government (Brasil, 2010a).
Comparative timeline of reverse logistics regulation and Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan release or update.
On the other hand, a NSWP modification introduced in 2020 provided for the revision of municipal plans within a maximum period of ten years (Brasil, 2020c). With that in mind, it is noticeable that the 2012-2015 plans should already have been revised. Also, the rather steady enactment of laws and other documents regarding RLSs in 2008-2026 was clearly not accompanied by a significant number of MSWMP updates. This indicates that the need to implement, operate, and maintain such systems has not been a motivator for such action.
CONCLUSION
The analysis of MSWMPs revealed that the level of detail in RLS specifications is minimal. In general, the documents only list existing or planned actions, without further details on collection goals or system expansion.
Moreover, the government frequently acts beyond its sphere of competence, especially regarding waste collection. This overload of responsibilities can create inefficiencies in waste management and shift the focus away from the NSWP-proposed model, which is based on shared responsibility among government, businesses, and consumers. The lack of clear goals and coordinated actions hinders the implementation of RLSs and compromises results, perpetuating process fragmentation and the absence of sustainable solutions.
Therefore, MSWMPs must incorporate RL aspects in a more detailed and objective way, establishing clear goals, deadlines, and monitoring mechanisms. The successful implementation of RLSs requires a joint, coordinated effort to overcome current deficiencies and ensure more sustainable waste management practices.
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank the Brazilian Federal Agency for Support and Evaluation of Graduate Education (CAPES) (Financial Code 001).
Supplementary Material:
Supplementary Material
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Edited by
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Editor:
Paula Loureiro Paulo https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8091-6486
Source: Prepared by the authors based on the MSWMPs of the municipalities.
Source: Prepared by the authors, based on 
