Responsibilities in reverse supply chains of waste electrical and electronic equipment: A literature reviewABSTRACT
The urgency for a redefinition in production and consumption models is highlighted by the growing demand for natural resources and the intense environmental degradation, exacerbated by rapid technological evolution, resulting in a significant quantity of improperly discarded Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE). The implementation of reverse systems is identified as an alternative to mitigate environmental damage from the improper disposal of WEEE, promoting the circular economy. This research aims to characterize the current literature context regarding responsibilities in reverse supply chains of WEEE. Through a systematic literature review, articles were selected from Scopus, ScienceDirect, and Web of Science for investigation. The results identified responsibilities in the realms of “Management and Operation,” “Integration,” “Legal,” “Economic,” “Product and Waste,” “Technological,” and “Capacity.” Concluding this research, the current landscape of papers addressing responsibilities related to the reverse supply chain of WEEE, as discussed in the literature, has been outlined. This survey significantly contributes to identifying gaps and opportunities for advancing new research, as well as fostering substantial developments in the literature on the subject.
Keywords:
responsibilities; reverse supply chain; waste electrical and electronic equipment; circular economy; sustainability
RESUMO
A urgência para a readequação dos modelos de produção e consumo é destacada pela crescente demanda por recursos naturais e a intensa degradação ambiental. Este quadro é agravado pela rápida evolução tecnológica, resultando em uma quantidade significativa de Resíduos de Equipamentos Eletroeletrônicos (WEEE) descartados inadequadamente. A implementação de sistemas reversos é identificada como uma alternativa para mitigar os danos ambientais causados pelo descarte inadequado dos WEEE, promovendo a Economia Circular. Esta pesquisa teve como objetivo caracterizar o atual contexto da literatura referente às responsabilidades em Cadeias de Suprimentos Reversas de WEEE. Por meio de uma revisão sistemática da literatura, foram selecionadas publicações nas bases Scopus, Science Direct e Web of Science para a investigação sobre o tema. Os resultados identificaram responsabilidades na esfera da “Gestão e Operação”, “Integração”, “Legal”, “Econômica”, “Materiais”, “Tecnológica” e “Capacitação”. Ao concluir esta pesquisa, delineou-se o panorama atual das publicações que abordam as responsabilidades relacionadas à Cadeias de Suprimentos Reversas de WEEE. Este levantamento contribuiu para identificar lacunas e oportunidades destinadas ao avanço de novas pesquisas, além de estimular desenvolvimentos substanciais na literatura sobre o tema.
Palavras-chave:
Responsabilidades; cadeia de suprimentos reversa; resíduos de equipamentos eletroeletrônico; economia circular; sustentabilidade
INTRODUCTION
According to the United Nations (UN), the world‘s population reached the 8 billion mark on November 15, 2022, and is expected to approach 9 billion by 2037. As the population increases, so do the possibilities of environmental impacts from economic development linked to improved per capita income, thus boosting the production of goods and unsustainable consumption (ONU News, 2022). In this sense, population pressure on natural resources, coupled with intense environmental degradation, accentuates the need to readjust current production and consumption models. Especially with regard to the accelerated technological evolution, which results in a high amount of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) being disposed of inappropriately (Chen et al., 2018).
According to ABNT NBR 1004/04, WEEE is characterized as hazardous waste (ABNT, 2004). The environmental impacts caused by the irregular disposal of these materials are mainly related to the large amount of heavy metals contained in this equipment, such as mercury, cadmium, nickel, arsenic, lead, cobalt, and beryllium (Almeida et al., 2015). Zaakour et al. (2023) pointed out that the soil has a high capacity for retaining these heavy metals so that their excessive concentration becomes internalized in the food chain or is leached, putting the quality of groundwater at risk and, consequently, human health.
That said, sustainability is about achieving an ecosystemic balance with economic development, with a view to improving the social conditions of the global population. Therefore, in order to minimize the environmental damage caused by the disposal of WEEE, the implementation of Reverse Supply Chains (RSCs) is another alternative to help promote sustainable practices by directing discarded materials and their leftovers for reuse in new products, also contributing to a Circular Economy (CE).
However, the effective implementation of reverse logistics depends on economic, legal, environmental, logistical, and technological factors (Leite, 2009), which can influence the proper definition and attribution of responsibilities between the entities directly or indirectly involved (stakeholders). In order to put the circular system into effect and operationalize the RSCs of WEEE, it is necessary to develop research aimed at identifying, proposing, and assigning responsibilities among the stakeholders involved in the RSC of this waste.
The increase in the generation of WEEE has been gaining attention since its irregular disposal is associated with the high toxicity of the materials and the potential risk of significant socio-environmental damage to communities and ecosystems (Seif; Salem; Allam, 2023). Accelerated technological innovation is a considerable driver of the amount of WEEE discarded, thus motivated by the obsolescence of electronic devices (Gupta et al., 2014). According to Al Habsi and Rengasamy (2020), desktops are strongly influenced by incompatibilities between hardware and software, making the technology obsolete, so that software updates can cause hardware obsolescence. They add that technical support also plays a vital role in the longevity of a technology. The unavailability of parts makes it impossible to repair a faulty unit. Therefore, when a component fails and there is no spare part, the entire unit becomes useless and is eventually replaced and then discarded.
Based on Oliveira et al. (2017), the improper disposal of WEEE can release contaminants into the environment that are difficult to biodegrade. Very common in emerging countries, the disposal of WEEE together with ordinary waste increases pollution and affects both the physical and biotic environment, being incorporated into the leachate of dumps or disposed of at recycling sites without authorization.
Much research associated with Extended Producer Responsibility – EPR (Johannes et al., 2021; Shooshtarian et al., 2021; Omar; Bully, 2022) and Shared Responsibility (Migliano; Demajorovic; Xavier, 2014; Rebehy et al., 2019) has already been presented in the literature. In Brazil, initiatives to implement RSCs, through the legal instruments associated with the National Solid Waste Policy (PNRS), have already been proposed for some types of waste. However, initial surveys of the literature show that the subject still needs further discussion, especially with regard to WEEE. In this sense, this research characterized the current context of the literature regarding stakeholders and responsibilities in WEEE RSCs.
METHODOLOGICAL PROCEDURES
This research adopted the Systematic Literature Review (SLR) method proposed by Godinho Filho and Saes (2013). The research stages are described below. First, the research protocol was defined (Table 1), with the parameters and guidelines necessary for the development of the following stages.
The bibliographic survey consisted of searching for articles in research databases, taking into account the parameters defined in the previous stage. Once the papers had been identified, they were organized and classified by eliminating duplicates and reading titles, abstracts, and keywords, considering inclusion and exclusion criteria. The classification of articles focused on aligning the content of the papers analyzed with the central theme of this research. Data extraction was carried out by completely reading the classified articles in order to gather information to achieve the objectives of this research. An investigation was then carried out into the characteristics of each paper selected, considering data on the country of origin, year, stakeholders, and responsibilities considered in WEEE RSCs. During the result analysis stage, the information identified was inspected in order to characterize and discuss the current research scenario regarding stakeholders and responsibilities in WEEE RSCs. At this stage, two guiding questions were considered: Which stakeholders are involved in WEEE RSCs, and what responsibilities are associated with stakeholders in WEEE RSCs?
Finally, in the conclusion stage, the results were summarized with the aim of stimulating new discussions on the subject of this work, as well as proposing opportunities for future research by identifying possible gaps in knowledge on the central theme of the research.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This section presents and discusses the results obtained from applying the proposed method. The initial survey on the Scopus, Science Direct, and Web of Science databases resulted in 98 articles associated with the subject under study, with 39 duplicate papers being identified. In this way, 59 studies were classified for the analysis of titles, abstracts, and keywords, considering the inclusion and exclusion criteria, which resulted in the exclusion of a further 23 articles and leaving 36 articles selected for the data extraction and information analysis stages.
Analysis on the selected articles identified the countries of origin of the research. China stood out with 10 related studies, followed by Brazil with 5 articles, and India and Italy, each with 4. Figure 1 shows the countries of origin along with their respective numbers of papers.
In China, the laws established in response to the rapid increase in WEEE generation in recent decades has driven regulatory transformation, encouraging research on EPR and the adoption of a fund for WEEE management (Hou et al., 2020). Prior to regulation, informal management faced challenges, such as the transfer to secondary markets, leading to critical environmental impacts due to improper recycling (Li et al., 2020).
In Brazil, the National Solid Waste Policy (NSWP) incorporated the principle of shared responsibility, requiring participation and assigning responsibilities to all stakeholders in WEEE management (Brasil, 2010) to mitigate the environmental impacts of these wastes, given the current inefficient structure. Establishing RSCs presents significant challenges for organizations globally and appears even more complex in emerging economies like Brazil, where RSCs are still in the early stages of implementation across most industrial sectors. Stakeholders have differing perspectives on RSCs for WEEE in Brazil, making decision-making complex. It is essential to align the economic, environmental, social, and cultural interests of these actors (Guarnieri; Silva; Levino, 2016).
Regarding the publication years of the articles reviewed, there is a slight upward trend; however, this trend cannot be deemed predictable due to year-to-year variation. It is noteworthy that studies on this topic are relatively recent, with research beginning in 2006. The annual progression in the number of publications related to this topic is shown in Figure 2.
The annual variation in publications may reflect different patterns of interest and research over time. Increases or decreases could indicate changes in awareness, regulations, technological advances, or specific events influencing RSCs for WEEE. In this context, the significant rise in publications in 2016 stands out, driven by various factors, including global events and changes in international policies and priorities. The Paris Agreement and the creation of the 2030 Agenda are events that likely influenced both specific increases and the overall upward trend in publications. These events heightened global awareness of sustainability and environmental responsibility, pressuring companies and researchers to address waste management within supply chains. Countries and organizations began to fund and encourage research on sustainability and responsibility within RSCs, boosting studies on the responsibilities involved in structuring these supply chains.
Once established the set of papers suitable for building the bibliographic scenario on WEEE RSC responsibilities, the following topics analyze the information relevant to achieving the objective of this research.
Stakeholders in waste electrical and electronic equipment reverse supply chains
In order to carry out this research, it was essential to investigate the 36 articles selected in order to identify the stakeholders most frequently discussed in the current literature on the subject. The most frequent stakeholders were producers and consumers, as discussed in 27 articles. The government was mentioned in 26 studies, followed by recyclers, identified in 23. It is worth noting that although suppliers (2), transporters (3), and NGOs (3) were little covered, the presence of these stakeholders in these studies indicates their influence on the dynamics of structuring and operating WEEE RSCs. In this way, this result characterizes a diversity of stakeholders still unexplored in the literature related to WEEE RSCs, in addition to the complex existence of responsibilities still lacking attribution. Figure 3 shows the number of articles per stakeholder identified.
Given that producers have been one of the most addressed stakeholders, it can be seen that the application of the EPR principle is still the greatest source of debate and discussion, stimulating the development of scientific production on this topic. This principle is based on the idea that producers should take responsibility for the environmental impact of their products throughout their entire life cycle, with the aim of reducing this impact and accounting for the related costs (Brown; Laubinger; Börkey, 2023). However, initial approaches to EPR have shown impractical results due to the lack of a holistic and real perspective (Niza et al., 2014). Thus, the need arises for a more comprehensive view to improve the effectiveness of EPR.
From what has been observed, the attribution of responsibilities between producers varies between countries, with each country being free to assign individual or shared/solidary responsibilities to the producers, distributors, or local governments involved. The varied approaches adopted indicate the complexity of effectively implementing physical and financial responsibility in the management of WEEE coming mainly from households (Corsini; Rizzi; Frey, 2016).
Papers are also being driven to investigate producers’ responsibilities in WEEE RSC due to the growing demand for the development of Ecodesign, both for equipment and packaging. Products designed under this approach are easy to disassemble and guarantee the quality of the end products (Wang et al., 2017). Consequently, Ecodesign makes it possible to reduce costs during product recovery. These reductions can be passed on to producers, encouraging their active participation in Ecodesign initiatives. Thus, this approach not only meets the demand for sustainable practices but also demonstrates that economic and environmental benefits can coexist and drive business proactivity in the ecologically responsible design scenario.
The analysis of the research identified many studies focusing on producers, also due to the interest in understanding and proposing strategies to improve, for example, Producer Responsibility Organizations (PROs). Although EPR is an individual obligation of the producer, in practice, they often fulfill these responsibilities collectively. Producers are free to choose how they organize their RSC activities (Carrasco-Gallego; Delgado-Hipólito; Ponce-Cueto, 2011).
For this reason, most producers choose working together in collective schemes (PRO) to share skills and resources and ensure compliance with EPR obligations. PROs are responsible for organizing the collection of waste from retailers or collection points, ensuring environmentally appropriate treatment on behalf of their members, the producers (Corsini; Rizzi; Frey, 2018).
The possible inference that 27 articles dealt with consumers in their studies is based on the importance of these stakeholders’ participation in RSCs by returning WEEE properly, which drives improvements in EPR efficiency. For this reason, it has spurred discussion about making it compulsory for consumers to return their WEEE to collection points (Faibil et al., 2023). One of the main concerns is the integration between consumers and retailers, collectors, or any other formalized return scheme, as well as consumer awareness of the benefits of purchasing reused products (Dwivedy; Mittal, 2012). Simultaneously, the research highlights the need for financial incentives to encourage consumers to return WEEE for recycling. The absence of this incentive in Brazil, for example, results in a loss of participation by these stakeholders. Brazilian governments and companies face challenges in setting up WEEE collection networks, given the complexity of controlling the return of this waste. This is due to Brazilian consumers’ habit of donating or selling electronics on the secondary market, rather than returning them to the producers (Guarnieri; Silva; Levino, 2016).
As already indicated, the emphasis on research into governmental issues in WEEE RSCs can be attributed to the fact that the private sector, especially in emerging countries, claims that the government does not clearly establish RSC responsibilities and does not have incentive policies for their implementation. However, the government counters by accusing the private sector of overestimating the challenges associated with implementing these responsibilities. For the government, the legislation outlines the producers’ responsibility for RSCs of WEEE, granting them the prerogative to share these responsibilities (Demajorovic; Augusto; Souza, 2016).
The papers surveyed argue that when the government increases the subsidy, environmental performance and consumer surplus increase. However, current devolution legislation may not lead to win-win outcomes for all stakeholders in the supply chain. Numerical examples show that, in certain contexts, take-back legislation is effective in protecting the environment at the expense of profits, i.e. take-back legislation decreases the chain’s profits. To ensure that the qualified recycler has a sufficient supply of WEEE, the government needs to extend subsidies (Zhou; Zheng; Huang, 2017).
During the searches, issues related to improving WEEE management systems and reducing bureaucracy were also identified. A notable discrepancy was observed between China, an emerging economy, and developed countries, whether in economic terms, environmental awareness, or waste treatment. Countries such as Japan and the United States have already established consumer responsibilities in WEEE RSCs, whereby these stakeholders must pay for recycling, but this is currently unrealizable in China.
According to Cao et al. (2016), the increase in the number of WEEE recycling laws and regulations in China is remarkable, but some are difficult to enforce due to inefficient coordination between different government departments. Strengthening law enforcement and establishing clear reward and punishment measures is key. Limited public attention to WEEE recycling and little enforcement of informal and illegal WEEE treatment companies are also reasons why many companies prefer to pay fines rather than invest in techniques and equipment.
The environmental cost of inadequate WEEE recycling has prompted studies on recyclers (23). Certified recyclers mainly buy WEEE from intermediaries who, in turn, lack the encouragement to sell it back to them due to current policies. In order to maximize profits, intermediaries generally prefer to recycle WEEE themselves, which increases the environmental cost due to the resulting pollution (Hou et al., 2020).
Another challenge raised was the scarcity of recyclers capable of meeting all the legal and certification requirements for the proper treatment of materials, without risks to human health or the environment, and respecting labor laws. The results point to the importance of investments in the management processes of waste picker cooperatives, which go beyond the supply of waste. They need to offer constant training and new technologies, train managers, and respect regional differences. In this respect, partnerships between large recycling companies and waste picker cooperatives can be interesting for both sides, offering greater profitability and dignity to waste pickers (Demajorovic; Augusto; Souza, 2016).
Finally, the formal recycling sector receives government subsidies, while informal recyclers rely solely on market sales. With the certification of recyclers, the subsidy is justified by the formal sector’s commitment to improving performance by adopting stricter environmental and social quality standards. However, the large informal sector is a challenge for developing WEEE RSCs. Balancing the targeting of resources in any model creates gaps, in which some exclude, while others consider integrating the informal sector into RSCs (Tong; Tao; Lifset, 2018).
Stakeholder responsibilities in Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Reverse Supply Chains
It was identified a great diversity of responsibilities perceived throughout the analyzed articles. Regarding the terms associated with these responsibilities, it became necessary to propose a grouping of the information extracted. This grouping aimed to provide a broader understanding of the WEEE RSC responsibilities portrayed in the literature. Thus, in this research, the responsibilities were organized according to the following groups: management and operation, integration, legislation, economy, materials (products and waste), technology, and, finally, capacity building. This grouping was based on factors that influence the structuring and operation of WEEE RSCs, while also seeking to closely encompass the essence of all the responsibilities discussed in the research. Considering these groups, the WEEE RSC responsibilities identified in the survey were quantified as management and operation (34), integration (27), legal (26), economic (25), materials (23), technology (23), and capacity building (14).
The responsibilities assigned to WEEE RSC management and operation are necessary to set targets for recovery, indicators, cloud data sharing, among other actions aimed at increasing the level of circularity of WEEE (Andersen; Jæger; Mishra, 2020; Andersen, 2021). In addition to implementing sustainable business practices to promote the assessment of recovery performance, as suggested in the operational, economic, environmental, and social domains. The proper hiring of human resources drives improvements in RSCs, along with the use of tools for the reverse management of remanufacturing systems (Cai; Choi, 2019).
According to Corsini, Rizzi, and Frey (2016), waste management is a public service that requires coordination, compliance monitoring, and the ability to enforce regulations (Dwivedy; Mittal, 2012). Stakeholders who play the role of RSC manager, such as governments and recycling industry associations, must exercise the function of regulation since the free market alone will not solve the waste problem (Frota Neto; van Wassenhove, 2013). The existence of a multilateral technical committee on WEEE management, coordinated by the government, allows for the synchronization of various initiatives aimed at improving control and management (Faibil et al., 2023).
Outsourced services should be managed through an internal web-based database that also provides a complete performance system. Management and operation is important for tracking collection, sorting, disassembly, and recovery activities (Corsin; Rizzi; Frey, 2018), given the need to monitor, evaluate, and report the results of interventions, such as EPR, and pass on information aimed at policies, infrastructure, and monitoring the recovery potential of products (Gottberg et al., 2006).
Regarding integration responsibilities, it was found that more transparency in the chain, with a focus on producers and transporters who handle waste, can promote greater visibility in the calculation of environmental fees and reverse processes (Andersen, 2021). Information technology (IT) has been cited as an agent for sharing information between stakeholders, increasing integration (Corsini; Rizzi; Frey, 2018). The transparency of information, data, and assessment indicators can help characterize products and solve problems of data accuracy and waste detection, as well as making it possible to build a big data platform to converge the information (Souza et al., 2016; Yuan et al., 2022).
Integration of the informal sector has also been reported by proposing the formalization of informal waste pickers, who are generally responsible for WEEE collection, segregation, and dismantling operations. Activities should be documented, and records should be stored efficiently (Sengupta et al., 2022). This expands opportunities for social and economic inclusion, as well as establishing the new concept of the green economy (Campos; Fonseca; Morais, 2014). In Brazil, 23% of families in situations of social vulnerability, with barriers to accessing education and work, find in RSCs the guarantee to survive (Ghisolfi et al., 2017).
With a view to structuring recovery sectors, the hybridity between formal and informal stakeholders allows various business models to fit into different channels, especially those aimed at second-hand markets, for reuse and renovation (Tong; Tao; Lifset, 2018). Efficient investment to improve the management processes of waste picker cooperatives is necessary and can be made possible through constant training, the use of technologies, and the training of managers while respecting regional differences (Demajorovic; Augusto; Souza, 2016).
As an integration strategy, the formation of PROs (Demajorovic; Augusto; Souza, 2016) seeks to create traceability and monitoring of RSCs. Activities should introduce policies such as the promotion and use of recycled raw materials and green government procurement, forming a reverse and circular chain of production, consumption, recycling, and regeneration of electronic products (Yuan et al., 2022). PROs also allow the sharing of responsibilities for product recovery, enhancing sustainability, and ensuring EPR (Cai; Choi, 2019).
To facilitate cooperation between stakeholders in RSCs, it is suggested that a platform be set up to register and search for companies operating in the different stages of the logistics system (Castro et al., 2022), as is the case in Brazil with the National Solid Waste Management Information System. In addition, EPR for electrical and electronic products is an obligation of leading companies, but all stakeholders in this domain, regardless of capacity, must actively participate through strategic alliances between partners in WEEE RSCs (Garg, 2021; Li et al., 2023). In short, the members of these RSCs need to learn how to cooperate and collaborate in order to comply with the laws (Demajorovic; Augusto; Souza, 2016).
Legal responsibilities were also discussed based on the need to establish common standards and harmonization between national and international legislation (Andersen; Jæger; Mishra, 2020; Andersen, 2021). National WEEE regulations need to be combined with existing instruments and policies, ensuring greater collaboration between various aspects and available infrastructures. Therefore, optimal results can be achieved in contexts that combine a high level of organization and political cooperation (Corsini; Rizzi; Frey, 2016). Also noteworthy is the strengthening of enforcement to combat the illegal flow of waste between countries (Zoeteman; Krikke; Venselaar, 2009). Bureaucratic simplification was also portrayed in the studies, which pointed to the need to improve the WEEE management system and reduce legislative departments. The government should define a responsible body to monitor and supervise in order to simplify the bureaucratic process (Cao et al., 2016).
In addition, papers recommend that all stakeholders should follow the EPR. This means that producers, distributors, wholesalers, retailers, and consumers should strengthen cooperation and assume their responsibilities, with the aim of promoting the level of reuse and recycling of resources (Wang; You; Li, 2018). Faibil et al. (2023) indicated that producers, distributors, and retailers should be obliged to receive used or discarded electronic equipment, when manufactured or sold by them, for recovery purposes.
Some research also addresses the implementation of individual producer responsibility, from the perspective that collectively organized systems mean that incentives for individual equipment manufacturers to apply ecodesign are limited (Zoeteman; Krikke; Venselaar, 2009). It is therefore recommended that detailed regulations be drawn up to allow for individual schemes (Besiou; van Wassenhove, 2015).
Therefore, given the current legislation, the papers highlight the urgent need for well-drafted and simplified legislation so that stakeholders can better structure RSCs, rather than chasing the last piece of municipal, state, and federal legislation. In other words, create legislation on WEEE that is harmonious, clear, and enforceable (Frota Neto; van Wassenhove, 2013), focused on collection, sorting, and eventually recycling, but also including reuse approaches (Börner; Hegger, 2018). As a strategic direction, it should establish methodological guidelines to assess socioeconomic impacts, besides further studies to propose tax exemption measures for RSC stakeholders (Campos; Fonseca; Morais, 2014).
Among the responsibilities identified, Kaushal and Nema (2013) and Garg (2021) addressed fee application, referring to an economic perspective. They proposed the use of tools, such as recycling fees or disposal fees, which could be key to improving the waste management scenario. Similarly, the implementation of charges on consumers, distributors, and retailers of WEEE has been advised (Sengupta et al., 2022). The government could determine fees, levy taxes on electronic equipment manufacturers, and grant subsidies to WEEE treatment companies (Cao et al., 2016). To finance WEEE RSCs, creating recycling fees, charged when equipment is purchased or returned, has been discussed by Demajorovic, Augusto, and Souza (2016). The costs should be passed on directly to the customer, as a non-visible part of the price or an explicit removal surcharge (Zoeteman; Krikke; Venselaar, 2009).
At the same time, the costs of opening and maintaining landfills could be transformed into investment for the effective recovery of waste by investing in the qualification of workers, infrastructure for collection and sorting, and technology for sorting materials (Ghisolfi et al., 2017). The implementation of alternative strategies, such as incentives to increase consumer participation (Guzzo et al., 2022), has shown that reward systems are essential to meet the collection target (Castro et al., 2022). Regulate, structure, and subsidize the appropriate scale since the costs of collection, transport, and recycling far exceed the profits resulting from sales of recycled materials (Frota Neto; van Wassenhove, 2013). For this reason, governments can encourage companies through legal and financial incentives so that direct costs are minimized and recovered materials can compete with materials from natural systems (Zoeteman; Krikke; Venselaar, 2009). As subsidies increase, stakeholders are encouraged to collect more WEEE (Hou et al. 2020). In addition, funds to finance RSCs are discussed in the research as an insurance fund, formed by groups of producers, in order to finance future generations of waste (Dwivedy; Mittal, 2012). The funds can be used to pay for WEEE RSC operations on a monthly basis (Sengupta et al., 2022).
Within the economic context, responsibilities related to strengthening law enforcement with reward and punishment measures have also been identified (Cao et al., 2016). Penalties should be assigned to stakeholders who do not take responsibility for RSC activities (Yu; Welford; Hills, 2006). It is necessary for the government to introduce penalties to facilitate sustainable practices for WEEE. Such waste is not perceived as an urgent issue, precisely because there is no related punitive regulation (Yu; Welford; Hills, 2006; Faibil et al., 2023).
For the responsibilities assigned to materials, the implementation of Ecodesign has been considered through the establishment of innovative approaches, such as design for disassembly, design for remanufacturing, or design for reverse logistics (Dwivedy; Mittal, 2012; Cai; Choi, 2019; Garg, 2021; Melo et al. 2021). Studies have shown that consumers bear most, if not all, of the burden of environmental costs and fees related to waste, while there is little pressure for producers to adopt Ecodesign in order to avoid and minimize the costs of RSCs of WEEE to other entities (Gottberg et al., 2006). It is necessary to act in the design phase to obtain an eco-sustainable product, where parts and materials can be easily dismantled (Condemi; Cucchiella; Schettini, 2019). Through ecodesign, recycled products and materials can offer competitive performance as the focus will be on recyclability, durability, and energy efficiency (Besiou; van Wassenhove, 2015). Design for recovery allows for a range of options from remanufacturing to material recycling and energy recovery (Zoeteman; Krikke; Venselaar, 2009).
Product labeling strategies enable access to information regarding end-of-life, disassembly, or treatment for waste recovery, as well as traceability and monitoring of products and waste (Andersen; Jæger; Mishra, 2020; Yuan et al., 2022). Therefore, information on product transactions can also increase the efficiency of the exchange (Cai; Choi, 2019). Product information favors the standardization of the recovery and use of discarded products, as well as strengthening the dissemination of information on the amount of toxic and hazardous materials added to equipment (Dwivedy; Mittal, 2012; Wang et al., 2017).
The number of articles exploring technological responsibilities was the same as those dealing with materials, indicating their relevance to RSCs. Technological innovation applied to the reverse flow of WEEE can solve technical difficulties, increase the level of automation, improve the working environment, capture valuable resources, and update the industry as a whole. In order to guarantee the quality of the material resulting from recycling, the development of new processes and equipment can reduce expensive labor costs and new recycling technologies can increase the added value of components (Li et al., 2023).
The integration of green technologies into the recycling strategy, according to Garg (2021), together with IT, facilitates the sharing of data, optimizing RSCs. The adoption of IT solutions drives the development of learning processes, representing an innovative advance. These tools converge to strengthen the efficiency and sustainability of RSCs, emphasizing the importance of a technological and sustainable approach to drive innovation (Corsini; Rizzi; Frey, 2018).
Related to technological advances, products with high obsolescence face challenges in creating cycles as innovations on production lines may not be covered by recovery (Zoeteman; Krikke; Venselaar, 2009). Rapid technological evolution can make functional parts unsuitable for reuse. In this context, investments in recycling technology are important for reducing costs and increasing the use of recycled materials, as well as mitigating uncertainties in raw material prices (Besiou; van Wassenhove, 2015).
The traceability and monitoring of products and waste should be improved by IT, as proposed by Tong, Tao, and Lifset (2018). This approach makes it possible to trace flows of recyclables from their sources to users. The implementation of organic electronic components, as a future all-organic tracking label option, minimizes environmental impacts (Li et al., 2023). With the traceability model, the WEEE RSC guarantees safe and environmentally friendly processes. Electronic platforms, as suggested by Cai and Choi (2019), facilitate online trade and exchange of materials, promoting efficiency in the management of transactions and products in RSCs.
Finally, capacity building emerges as the least emphasized group of responsibilities in the set of articles analyzed, despite its substantial importance in structuring WEEE RSCs. There were discussions about creating employment policies that include the category of waste pickers, digital inclusion, and qualification (Guarnieri; Silva; Levino, 2016). The important role of designing circularity policies with the cooperation of human, material, and financial resources between developed and emerging countries was emphasized. The advantages of professional training promote the flow of advanced technologies to emerging countries and improve the overall level of advancement of the renewable resources industry (Li et al., 2020).
With the increase in collection rates, there is a need for planning so that waste management can be handled properly, requiring infrastructure, labor training, and recycling technology. Information needs to be disseminated to retailers, such as operating methods, prerequisites for implementation, and possible risks associated with RSCs (Ghisolfi et al., 2017). Responsibilities were identified for financial collection and training for waste pickers, especially with regard to operational steps and safety standards. The collaboration of universities and technical entities was discussed in order to train and empower waste pickers with the support of public bodies and the private sector, especially to guarantee a decent wage (Castro et al., 2022).
Given this scenario, environmental education emerges as a pillar in WEEE management, as highlighted by Garg (2021) with community awareness programs. Consumer awareness, according to Yuan et al. (2022), not only influences their daily transactions but also enables them to be clear about the products on the market (Zhou; Zheng; Huang, 2017).
Therefore, raising awareness about the importance of ecodesign and promoting consumer responsibility in the return of electronic devices are fundamental aspects to be addressed in environmental education (Yu; Welford; Hills, 2006; Demajorovic; Augusto; Souza, 2016). In Brazil, the successful implementation of the PNRS requires a strategic vision from the government and behavioral change in the population (Campos; Fonseca; Morais, 2014). Educational institutions can play an important role in promoting knowledge about the toxicity of WEEE, thus contributing to the environmental education of the population (Castro et al., 2022).
With a view to gaining a proper understanding of WEEE RSC responsibilities, Table 2 shows the main responsibilities identified and their references, providing an analysis based on the literature.
Grouping of Reverse Supply Chains responsibilities and accountabilities identified in the survey.
As presented in Table 2, the responsibility referred to as product and waste traceability/monitoring was considered in three distinct perspectives. In the materials perspective, it is relevant because it requires the development and use of labels and identification systems that can withstand adverse conditions throughout the product’s life cycle. In the Technological perspective, it pertains to technological advancements, such as the development of specialized software for recording and tracking the life cycle of products and waste. In the management and operation perspective, it relates to the enhancement of RSC management, including processes and practices to ensure the correct identification and tracking of products and waste.
Regarding the responsibility of integrating the informal sector into the RSCs, which was categorized under integration and legal, this responsibility is particularly essential in emerging economies. In these countries, the informal sector significantly impacts the collection and recycling of WEEE. Furthermore, integration should be supported by a clear and robust legal framework, with laws and regulations that define the responsibilities of all stakeholders involved to ensure that RSC activities are carried out in accordance with established assignments.
Finally, information transparency is also a cross-cutting responsibility across the proposed perspectives. Regarding integration, this responsibility promotes the accurate exchange of information among the stakeholders of the RSCs, facilitating the coordination and joint execution of processes. In the legal perspective, this responsibility can establish guidelines to ensure compliance with proper waste management. Finally, in the materials perspective, a lack of information about product composition was identified as a barrier to the recovery or proper disposal of waste.
After presenting the proposed groups of responsibilities, an analysis was conducted to examine their relationship with the countries identified in the study (see Table 3).
Responsibilities Grouping in Reverse Supply Chains per Countries identified from the Systematic Literature Review.
An analysis of Table 3 reveals that, within each group of responsibilities in RSCs, the identified research includes participation from both developing and developed countries. This finding highlights a distinction in research priorities associated with WEEE management.
In the capacity building cluster, developing countries such as China (5) and Brazil (4) lead, followed by Hong Kong (3). The prominence of developing countries reflects the specific challenges they face in integrating workers, especially from the informal sector, into formal waste management systems.
In the economic cluster, the leadership of China (9) and Brazil (4) demonstrates developing countries’ concerns with the costs associated with RSCs, including subsidies and financial incentives. In contrast, countries like Hong Kong (3) and the United States show a less intensive focus, reflecting more established and consolidated systems where economic incentives are partially integrated into public policies and business practices.
In the management and operation cluster, China (9) and Brazil (6) remain prominent, with Italy (5) representing developed countries. This distribution reinforces that developing countries have a greater urgency to build robust operational systems to address specific RSC challenges, while developed countries tend to focus on refining existing systems. This difference underscores the need for basic infrastructure in emerging economies compared to the emphasis on innovation and efficiency in advanced economies.
Regarding integration cluster, China (9) and Brazil (5) again take the lead, followed by Italy (4) and the United States (3). The integration of stakeholders, especially the informal sector, is a greater concern in developing countries due to their significant reliance on this sector for waste collection and sorting. In developed countries, the focus is more on aligning RSC efforts with stricter environmental regulations and quality standards.
In the legal cluster, developing countries such as China (7) and Brazil (5) stand out, while India (3) and Hong Kong (3) reflect different realities within this category. In developed countries like Italy (3), legislation tends to align with international standards, maintaining regulatory compliance and promoting CE practices. In developing countries, there is a greater effort to standardize and simplify laws, aiming to achieve the robustness of global policies.
In the products and waste cluster, developing countries such as China (9) and Brazil (6) maintain leadership, reflecting the critical need to implement ecodesign practices and improve the traceability and monitoring of WEEE throughout the product lifecycle. This priority is particularly pressing in developing countries, where the pressure to manage hazardous waste is exacerbated by a lack of technological infrastructure and incentives. Meanwhile, countries like Italy (3) and Hong Kong (2) already have more advanced systems for waste monitoring and utilization, focusing on innovations to enhance efficiency and reduce costs.
In the technological cluster, China (8) and Brazil (5) remain at the forefront, indicating that developing countries are investing significantly in innovations to bridge structural and technical gaps in RSCs. These nations recognize the necessity of advancing technologies to handle growing volumes of WEEE and mitigate environmental impacts. However, countries like Italy (3) and Hong Kong (2) continue prioritizing the application of cutting-edge technologies, with a focus on automation and traceability.
The results of the study highlight a clear distinction between developing and developed countries. Developing nations continue to prioritize the creation of infrastructure, capacity building, and the integration of basic systems. Conversely, developed nations concentrate on refining established practices and incorporating technological and regulatory advancements. This contrast reflects the differing maturity levels of WEEE RSC systems, emphasizing the need for tailored approaches suited to each socioeconomic context.
The investigation and analysis of papers still identified research gaps. Table 4 presents these gaps in order to boosting research contributions to expand knowledge on WEEE RSC responsibilities and relationships with topics such as the CE, waste management, and sustainability.
CONCLUSIONS
The growing demand for natural resources, coupled with intense environmental degradation, highlights the urgent need to readjust current production and consumption models. This challenge is amplified by rapid technological evolution, resulting in large quantities of WEEE being disposed of inappropriately. Faced with this scenario, sustainability has emerged to balance the ecosystem with economic development, prioritizing the improvement of global environmental and social conditions. Implementing RSC is a way of mitigating environmental damage and promoting CE.
In order to characterize the scenario regarding WEEE RSC responsibilities, this research carried out an SLR, considering a set of papers selected from the Scopus, Science Direct, and Web of Science databases. The analysis suggested a portrait of responsibilities considering the following perspectives: management and operation, integration, legal, economic, product and waste, technology, and capacity building. The main results highlighted the need to adopt targets for recovery and sustainable business practices. RSC regulation by government and industry association was considered essential in challenging the belief that the free market will solve waste problems. Transparency of information, formalization of waste pickers, and simplification of government bureaucracy also emerge as aspects to improve WEEE RSCs. The need to implement recovery fees for distributors, retailers, and consumers was also finally highlighted, outlining an overview of the responsibilities identified in the literature.
As future studies, we recommend expanding research on the subject to emerging economies in order to better understand the integration strategies of the informal sector for WEEE management. It is also essential to evaluate labeling options aimed at monitoring and tracing products and waste. We also suggest investigating WEEE legislation, regulations, or directives that guide the allocation of responsibilities between stakeholders in the transfer of products and waste between countries.
REFERENCES
-
AL HABSI, Faisal Said; RENGASAMY, Elango. Managing obsolescence and prolonging the useful life of Desktop Computers – An Exploratory Analysis. International Journal of Management (IJM), v. 11, n. 6, 2020. https://doi.org/10.34218/IJM.11.6.2020.027
» https://doi.org/10.34218/IJM.11.6.2020.027 -
ALMEIDA, Mislene Aparecida de; PAPANDREA, Pedro José; CARNEVALI, Marcos; ANDRADE, Aurélio Xavier de; CORREA, Francisco de Paulo Victor; ANDRADE, Maria Rita Martins. Destinação do Lixo Eletrônico: Impactos ambientais causados pelos resíduos tecnológicos. Revista Científica E-Locução, v. 1, n. 07, p. 1-17, 2015. https://doi.org/10.57209/e-locucao.v1i07.43
» https://doi.org/10.57209/e-locucao.v1i07.43 -
ANDERSEN, Terje. A comparative study of national variations of the European WEEE directive: manufacturer’s view. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, v. 29, p. 19920-19939, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-13206-z
» https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-13206-z -
ANDERSEN, Terje; JÆGER, Bjørn; MISHRA, Alok. Circularity in Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive. Comparison of a Manufacturer’s Danish and Norwegian Operations. Sustainability, v. 12, n. 13, p. 5236, 2020. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12135236
» https://doi.org/10.3390/su12135236 - ASSOCIAÇÃO BRASILEIRA DE NORMAS TÉCNICAS (ABNT). ABNT NBR 10004: Resíduos Sólidos – Classificação. Rio de Janeiro: ABNT, 2004.
-
BESIOU, Maria; van WASSENHOVE, Luk N. Van. Closed-loop supply chains for photovoltaic panels: a case-based approach. Journal of Industrial Ecology, v. 20, n. 34, p. 929-937, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.12297
» https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.12297 -
BÖRNER, Laura; HEGGER, Dries L.T. Toward design principles for sound e-waste governance: A research approach illustrated with the case of the Netherlands. Resources, Conservation & Recycling, v. 134, p. 271-281. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.02.013
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2018.02.013 -
BRASIL. Política Nacional de Resíduos Sólidos. Lei 12.305, de 02 de agosto de 2010 Available at: https://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2007-2010/2010/lei/l12305.htm Access on: Apr. 20, 2023.
» https://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2007-2010/2010/lei/l12305.htm -
BROWN, Andrew; LAUBINGER, Frithjof; BÖRKEY, Peter New Aspects of EPR: Extending producer responsibility to additional product groups and challenges throughout the product lifecycle. OECD Environment Working Papers, n. 225, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1787/cfdc1bdc-en
» https://doi.org/10.1787/cfdc1bdc-en -
CAI, Ya-Jun; CHOI, Tsan-Ming. Extended producer responsibility: a systematic review and innovative proposals for improving sustainability. IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1109/TEM.2019.2914341
» https://doi.org/10.1109/TEM.2019.2914341 -
CAMPOS, Tereza Raquel Taulois; FONSECA, Marcus Vinicius Araújo; MORAIS, R. M. N. Reverse logistics: a route that only makes sense when adopting a systemic vision. WIT Waste Management and The Environment, v. 180, p. 18052, 2014. https://doi.org/10.2495/WM140041
» https://doi.org/10.2495/WM140041 -
CAO, Jian; CHEN, Yangyang; SHI, Bin; LU, Bo; ZHANG, Xuemei; YE, Xuhong; ZHAI, Guangshu; ZHU, Chenbo; ZHOU, Gengui. WEEE recycling in Zhejiang Province, China: generation, treatment, and public awareness. Journal of Cleaner Production, v. 127, p. 311-324, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.03.147
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.03.147 - CARRASCO-GALLEGO, Ruth; DELGADO-HIPÓLITO, Joaquín; PONCE-CUETO, Eva. Reverse logistics in the automotive industry: organizational models for waste generated in repair shops. GOLINSKA, Paulina; FERTSCH, Marek; MARX-GÓMEZ, Jorge (Eds.). Information Technologies in Environmental Engineering: new trends and challenges. Berlin; Heidelberg: Springer, 2011. p. 569-578.
-
CASTRO, Francine Duarte; XAVIER, Bárbara Gomes; CARDEAL, Jordânia Alexina do Carmo; PERPÉTUO, Brena Marcela Penha; LOPES, Laura Gomes; SILVA, Jaqueline Lacerda da; COSTA, Ricardo França Furtado da; CUTAIA, Laura; VACARI, Mentore. The (un)shared responsibility in the reverse logistics of portable batteries: A Brazilian case. Waste Management, v. 154, p. 49-63, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2022.09.021
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2022.09.021 -
CHEN, Yu; CHEN, Mengjun; LI, Yungui; WANG, Bin; CHEN, Shu; XU, Zhonghui. Impact of technological innovation and regulation development on e-waste toxicity: a case study of waste mobile phones. Scientific Reports, v. 8, n. 1, p. 1-9, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-25400-0
» https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-25400-0 -
CONDEMI, Alessia; CUCCHIELLA, Federica; SCHETTINI, Domenico. Circular Economy and E-Waste: An Opportunity from RFID TAGs. Applied Sciences, v. 9, n. 16, p. 3422, 2019. https://doi.org/10.3390/app9163422
» https://doi.org/10.3390/app9163422 -
CORSINI, Filippo; RIZZI, Francesco; FREY, Marco. Extended producer responsibility: The impact of organizational dimensions on WEEE collection from households. Waste Management, v. 59, p. 23-29, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.10.046
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.10.046 -
CORSINI, Filippo; RIZZI, Francesco; FREY, Marco. Institutional legitimacy of non-profit innovation facilitators: Strategic postures in regulated environments. Technology in Society, v. 53, p. 69-78, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2018.01.002
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2018.01.002 -
DEMAJOROVIC, Jacques; AUGUSTO, Eryka Eugênia Fernandes; SOUZA, Maria Tereza Saraiva de. Reverse Logistics of E-Waste in Developing Countries: Challenges and Prospects for the Brazilian Model. Ambiente & Sociedade, v. 19, n. 2, p. 117-136, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1590/1809-4422ASOC141545V1922016
» https://doi.org/10.1590/1809-4422ASOC141545V1922016 -
DWIVEDY, Maheshwar; MITTAL, R. An investigation into e-waste flows in India. Journal of Cleaner Production, v. 37, P. 229-242, 2012. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.07.017
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.07.017 -
FAIBIL, Daniel; ASANTE, Richard; AGYEMANG, Martin; ADDANEY, Michael; BAAH, Charles. Extended producer responsibility in developing economies: Assessment of promoting factors through retail electronic firms for sustainable e-waste management. Waste Management & Research, v. 41, p. 117-142, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242X221105433
» https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242X221105433 -
FROTA NETO, João Quariguasi; van WASSENHOVE, Luk N. original equipment manufacturers’ participation in take-back initiatives in Brazil. Journal of Industrial Ecology, v. 17, n. 2, p. 238-248, 2013. https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.12019
» https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.12019 -
GARG, Chandra Prakash. Modeling the e-waste mitigation strategies using grey-theory and DEMATEL framework. Journal of Cleaner Production, v. 281, n. 124035, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124035
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124035 -
GHISOLFI, Verônica; CHAVES, Gisele de Lorena Diniz; SIMAN, Renato Ribeiro; XAVIER, Lúcia Helena. System dynamics applied to closed loop supply chains of desktops and laptops in Brazil: A perspective for social inclusion of waste pickers. Waste Management, v. 60, p. 14-31, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.12.018
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.12.018 -
GODINHO FILHO, Moacir; SAES, Elizangela Veloso. From time-based competition (TBC) to quick response manufacturing (QRM): The evolution of research aimed at lead time reduction. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, v. 64, n. 5-8, p. 1177-1191, 2013. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-012-4064-9
» https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-012-4064-9 -
GOTTBERG, Annika; MORRIS, Joe; POLLARD, Simon; MARK-HERBERT, Cecilia; COOK, Matthew. Producer responsibility, waste minimisation and the WEEE Directive: Case studies in eco-design from the European lighting sector. Science of the Total Environment, v. 359, p. 38-56, 2006. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2005.07.001
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2005.07.001 -
GUARNIERI, Patricia; SILVA, Lucio Camara e; LEVINO, Natallya A. Analysis of electronic waste reverse logistics decisions using Strategic Options Development Analysis methodology: A Brazilian case. Journal of Cleaner Production, v. 133, p. 1105-1117, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.06.025
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.06.025 - GUPTA, Shubham; MODI, Gaurav; SAINI, Rahul; AGARWALA, Vijaya. A review on various electronic waste recycling techniques and hazards due to its improper handling. International Refereed Journal of Engineering and Science (IRJES), v. 3, n. 5, p. 05-17, 2014.
-
GUZZO, Daniel; PIGOSSO, Daniela C. A.; VIDEIRA, Nuno; MASCARENHAS, Janaina. A System dynamics-based framework for examining circular economy transitions. Journal of Cleaner Production, v. 333, p. 129933, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.129933
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.129933 -
HOU, Jiayue; ZHANG, Qun; HU, Shanying; CHEN, Dingjiang. Evaluation of a new extended producer responsibility mode for WEEE based on a supply chain scheme. Science of the Total Environment, v. 726, p. 138531, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138531
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138531 -
JOHANNES, Hendro Putra; KOJIMA, Michikazu; IWASAKI, Fusanori; EDITA, Ellen Putri. Applying the extended producer responsibility towards plastic waste in Asian developing countries for reducing marine plastic debris. Waste Management & Research, v. 39, n. 5, p. 690-702, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242X211013412
» https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242X211013412 -
KAUSHAL, Rajendra Kumar; NEMA, Arvind K. Strategic Analysis of Computer Waste Management Options: Game-Theoretic Approach. Journal of Environmental Engineering, v. 139, n. 2, p. 241-249. 2013. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)ee.1943-7870.0000618
» https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)ee.1943-7870.0000618 - LEITE, Paulo Roberto. Logística reversa: meio ambiente e competitividade. 2. ed. São Paulo: Pearson-Prentice Hall, 2009.
-
LI, Kun; QIN, Yufei; ZHU, Daolong; ZHANG, Shengen. Upgrading waste electrical and electronic equipment recycling through extended producer responsibility: A case study. Circular Economy, v. 2, p. 100025, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cec.2023.100025
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cec.2023.100025 -
LI, Zhigang; GUO, Chen; LI, Xiaoqian; WANG, Zhanshan; WU, Jing; QIAN, Yan; WEI, Yongjie. Associations between metal exposure and global DNA methylation in potentially affected people in E-Waste recycling sites in Taizhou City, China. Science of The Total Environment, v. 711, p. 135100, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135100
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135100 -
MELO, André Cristiano Silva; BRAGA JUNIOR, Antonio Erlindo; LEITE, Camilla Dandara Pereira; BASTOS, Leonardo dos Santos Lourenço; NUNES, Denilson Ricardo de Lucena. Frameworks for reverse logistics and sustainable design integration under a sustainability perspective: a systematic literature review. Research in Engineering Design, v. 32, p. 225-243, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00163-020-00351-8
» https://doi.org/10.1007/s00163-020-00351-8 -
MIGLIANO, João Ernesto Brasil; DEMAJOROVIC, Jacques; XAVIER, Lucia Helena. Shared Responsibility and Reverse Logistics Systems for e-Waste in Brazil. Journal of Operations and Supply Chain Management, v. 7, n. 2, p. 91-109, 2014. https://doi.org/10.12660/joscmv7n2p91-109
» https://doi.org/10.12660/joscmv7n2p91-109 -
NIZA, Samuel; SANTOS, Eduardo; COSTA, Inês Santos; RIBEIRO, Paulo; FERRÃO, Paulo. Extended producer responsibility policy in Portugal: a strategy towards improving waste management performance. Journal of Cleaner Production, v. 64, p. 277-287, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.07.037
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.07.037 -
OLIVEIRA, José Diego; SELVA, Vanice Santiago Fragoso; PIMENTEL, Rejane Magalhães de Mendonça; SANTOS, Simone Machado. Resíduos eletroeletrônicos: geração, impactos ambientais e gerenciamento. Revista Brasileira de Geografia Física, v. 10, n. 5, p. 1655-1667, 2017. https://doi.org/10.26848/rbgf.v10.5.p1655-1667
» https://doi.org/10.26848/rbgf.v10.5.p1655-1667 - OMAR, Hussein Mohamed; BULLU, Saphy Lal. Solid waste management related legislation: Analysis of its adequacy for implementation of extended producer responsibility schemes in Tanzania. International Journal of Environmental and Ecology Research, v. 4, n. 3, p. 28-34, 2022. ISSN: 2664-7109
-
ONU NEWS. Site de Notícias da Organização das Nações Unidas. Perspectiva Global Reportagens Humanas População mundial atinge 8 bilhões de pessoas 2022. Available at: https://news.un.org/pt/story/2022/11/1805342 Access on: Nov 06, 2022.
» https://news.un.org/pt/story/2022/11/1805342 -
REBEHY, Perla Calil Pongeluppe Wadhy; LIMA, Sabrina Andrade dos Santos; NOVI, Juliana Chiaretti; SALGADO JR., Alexandre Pereira. Reverse logistics systems in Brazil: Comparative study and interest of multistakeholders. Journal of Environmental Management, v. 250, p. 109223, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.06.124
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.06.124 -
SEIF, Rania; SALEM, Fatma Zakaria; ALLAM, Nageh K. E-waste recycled materials as efficient catalysts for renewable energy technologies and better environmental sustainability. Environment, Development and Sustainability, v. 26, p. 5473-550, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-023-02925-7
» https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-023-02925-7 -
SENGUPTA, Diyasha; ILANKOON, I.M.S.K.; KANG, Kai Dean; CHONG, Meng Nan. Circular economy and household e-waste management in India: Integration of formal and informal sectors. Minerals Engineering, v. 184, p. 107661, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2022.107661
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2022.107661 -
SHIMADA, Tomoaki; van WASSENHOVE, Luk N. Closed-loop supply chain activities in japanese home appliance/personal computer manufacturers: a case study. International Journal of Production Economics, v. 212, p. 259-265, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpe.2016.11.010
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpe.2016.11.010 -
SHOOSHTARIAN, Salman; MAQSOOD, Tayyab; WONG, Peter S.P.; KHALFAN, Malik; YANG, Rebecca J. Extended producer responsibility in the Australian construction industry. Sustainability, v. 13, n. 2, p. 620, 2021. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13020620
» https://doi.org/10.3390/su13020620 -
SOUZA, Ricardo Gabbay de; CLÍMACO, João C. Namorado; SANT’ANNA, Annibal Parracho; ROCHA, Tiago Barreto; VALLE, Rogério de Aragão Bastos do; QUELHAS, Osvaldo Luiz Gonçalves. Sustainability assessment and prioritisation of e-waste management options in Brazil. Waste Management, v. 57, p. 46-56, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.01.034
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.01.034 -
TONG, Xin; TAO, Dongyan; LIFSET, Reid. Varieties of business model for post-consumer recycling in China. Journal of Cleaner Production, v. 170, p. 665-673, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.09.032
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.09.032 -
WANG, Huaidong; GU, Yifan; LI, Liquan; LIU, Tingting; WU, Yufeng; ZUO, Tieyong. Operating models and development trends in the extended producer responsibility system for waste electrical and electronic equipment. Resources, Conservation & Recycling, v. 127, p. 159-167, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.09.002
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.09.002 -
WANG, Minx; YOU, Xiaoling; LI, Xin. Assessing the recycling efficiency of resource in E-waste based on MFA of reverse logistics system. Springer International Publishing, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-59280-0_81
» https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-59280-0_81 -
YU, Jieqiong; WELFORD, Richard; HILLS, Peter. Industry responses to EU WEEE and ROHS directives: perspectives from China. Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, v. 13, n. 5, p. 286-299, 2006. https://doi.org/10.1002/csr.131
» https://doi.org/10.1002/csr.131 -
YUAN, Qingbin; GU, Yifan; YANG, Ming; WU, Yufeng; HU, Guangwen; ZHOU, Guangli. Synergistic utilization mechanism of e-waste in regions with different levels of development: A case study of Guangdong Province. Journal of Cleaner Production, v. 380, Part. 1, p. 134855, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.134855
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.134855 -
ZAAKOUR, Fatna; KHOLAIQ, Mariame; KHOUCHLAA, Aya; EL MJIRI, Ikram; RAHIMI, Abdelmejid; SABER, Najib. Assessment of Heavy Metal Contamination Using Pollution Index, Geo-Accumulation Index, and Potential Ecological Risk Index in Agricultural Soil – A Case Study in the Coastal Area of Doukkala (Morocco). Ecological Engineering & Environmental Technology, v. 2, p. 38-44, 2023. https://doi.org/10.12912/27197050/157037
» https://doi.org/10.12912/27197050/157037 -
ZHOU, Wenhui; ZHENG, Yanfang; HUANG, Weixiang. Competitive advantage of qualified WEEE recyclers through EPR legislation. European Journal of Operational Research, v. 257, n. 2, p. 641-655, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejor.2016.07.050
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejor.2016.07.050 -
ZOETEMAN, Bastiaan C. J.; KRIKKE, Harold R.; VENSELAAR, Jan. Handling WEEE waste flows: on the effectiveness of producer responsibility in a globalizing world. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, v. 47, p. 415-436, 2009. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-009-2358-3
» https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-009-2358-3
Publication Dates
-
Publication in this collection
31 Mar 2025 -
Date of issue
2025
History
-
Received
18 Sept 2024 -
Accepted
06 Jan 2025
Source: the authors (2024).
Source: the authors (2024).
Source: the authors (2024).