| Lubkowska and Knyszyńska, 20232
|
14 football players underwent PBC after a match. Thermographic analyses were performed before and after the treatment. Serum evaluations of CK, LDH, and AST were done before, directly after, and 24, 48, and 72h after the match. |
Significant decrease in skin temperature in all analyzed areas post-PBC. Greatest temperature drops in thighs and smallest in the back and chest areas. Changes in CK and AST suggest a beneficial effect of PBC on post-workout regeneration. |
| Bouzigon et al., 20213
|
Review paper on whole-body cryotherapy/cryostimulation (WBC). |
The application of cold or low temperatures can elicit favorable physiological adaptations in skeletal muscle tissue. Specifically, cryotherapy may improve muscle recovery, reduce exercise-induced muscle damage, and potentially enhance subsequent athletic performance. |
| Petersen and Fyfe, 20214
|
Review on effects of post-exercise cold-water immersion (CWI) on physiological adaptations to resistance training and underlying mechanisms in skeletal muscle. |
CWI can attenuate physiological adaptations to resistance training, but doesn't influence endurance training adaptations. CWI may hinder activation of anabolic signaling pathways and muscle protein synthesis. |
| Pawłowska et al., 20215
|
22 male volunteers performed a 30 min submaximal aerobic exercise, followed by a 20 min rest at room temperature (RT-REST) or with a 3 min 8 °C water bath (CWI-REST). Blood samples were analyzed for various inflammatory markers. |
IL-6, IL-10, and TNF-α levels and AAT activity increased significantly post-exercise. IL-6 was higher after CWI-REST than RT-REST. No changes in lysosomal enzymes were observed. Limited effect of 3 min CWI on post-exercise inflammatory markers. |
| Pawłowska et al., 20226
|
45 male volunteers took part in two experiments: CWI (Experiment I) and a sauna bath (Experiment II). Blood samples were taken pre-exercise, post-exercise, and post-regeneration, analyzing indicators of inflammation and oxidative damage. |
CWI was more effective than a sauna bath in reducing the post-exercise inflammatory response. A single sauna bath may cause proteolytic tissue damage. Disturbances were less pronounced in regular cold-water bath users. |
| Poppendieck et al., 20137
|
Literature search of 21 randomized controlled trials addressing effects of cooling on performance recovery in trained athletes. |
Largest average effect size for sprint performance. Effects most pronounced 96 h after exercise. Effects after endurance training larger than after strength-based exercise. Whole-body immersion more effective. |
| Klich et al., 20188
|
12 elite sprint track cyclists studied after anaerobic power training. PPT measurements made on dominant leg at various times post-training. |
PPT for anterior thigh muscles increased significantly 1 h after CWI. In posterior thigh muscles, PPT increased 1h and 12h after CWI. |
| Kowalski and Lubkowska, 20229
|
Each participant performed an exercise test twice, once with a passive recovery period, and the second time with cold water immersion after exercise. Each time before the test, immediately after and at 3, 6 and 9 minutes after exercise, the concentration of lactate in the capillary blood was measured. |
Faster reduction of lactate concentration with cold water immersion post-exercise. Suggests effectiveness in restoring physical fitness in post-exercise recovery. |
| Moore et al., 202210
|
A systematic search was conducted in September 2021 using Medline, SPORTDiscus, Scopus, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, EmCare, and Embase databases. Studies were included if they were peer-reviewed and published in English, included participants who were involved in sport or deemed physically active, compared CWI with passive recovery methods following an acute bout of strenuous exercise and included athletic performance, athlete perception, and CK outcome measures. Studies were divided into two strenuous exercise subgroups: eccentric exercise and high-intensity exercise. Random effects meta-analyses were used to determine standardized mean differences (SMD) with 95% confidence intervals. Meta-regression analyses were completed with water temperature and exposure durations as continuous moderator variables. |
CWI improved the recovery of muscular power 24 h after eccentric exercise (SMD 0.34 [95% CI 0.06-0.62]) and after high-intensity exercise (SMD 0.22 [95% CI 0.004-0.43]), and reduced serum CK (SMD - 0.85 [95% CI - 1.61 to - 0.08]) 24 h after high-intensity exercise. CWI also improved muscle soreness (SMD - 0.89 [95% CI - 1.48 to - 0.29]) and perceived feelings of recovery (SMD 0.66 [95% CI 0.29-1.03]) 24 h after high-intensity exercise. No significant influence on the recovery of strength performance following either eccentric or high-intensity exercise. Meta-regression indicated that shorter time and lower temperatures were related to the largest beneficial effects on serum CK (duration and temperature dose effects) and endurance performance (duration dose effects only) after high-intensity exercise. |
| Kruger et al., 201511
|
11 endurance athletes tested with high-intensity running followed by rest with either 3 min of whole-body exposure to -110 °C or a placebo. |
Difference in tlim between initial run and after recovery was lower with WBC. During post-recovery run, TSI was higher in WBC, while VO2, HR, and RPE were lower. |
| Article |
Study methods |
Results description |
| Egana et al., 202012
|
Ten male team-sport players underwent 3 IST protocols separated by either passive rest, 5-min CWI, or 2.5-min CWI. |
In the passive rest trial, total work and peak power were lower in the second half. This was not observed following CWI protocols. Tcore was lower in the second half after both CWI protocols. |
| Espeland et al., 202213
|
Multiple database survey on effects of voluntary CWI in humans. 104 studies deemed relevant after filtering. |
CWI seems to have protective effects against several diseases. Some studies indicate beneficial health effects from voluntary CWI. Conclusions are still debated. |
| Siqueira et al., 201814
|
30 active males assigned to control or CWI group. CWI group had immersions post-exercise and every 24h for 72h. Multiple parameters assessed at various times post-EIMD. |
Muscle thickness returned to baseline at 24h in CWI group and was lower than control. DOMS returned to baseline at 168h for CWI group. Greater CK peak in the control group. CWI attenuated muscle damage. |
| Xiao et al., 202315
|
Systematic review and meta-analysis on the effect of CWI on fatigue recovery after high-intensity exercise. 20 studies included. |
CWI significantly reduced DOMS and perceived exertion at 0h, lowered CMJ at 0h, reduced CK at 24h, and reduced lactate at 24 and 48h. No effect on CRP and IL-6. Cold water immersion recommended post-exercise. |
| Argus et al., 201716
|
13 men underwent perceptual (fatigue, soreness) and performance measures (MVC of knee extensors, countermovement jumps) before and after training. Post-training, subjects underwent CWI, CWT, or passive sitting (CON) recovery strategies. Measures were reassessed immediately, 2h, and 4h post-recovery. |
Peak torque during MVC and jump performance significantly decreased after resistance training in all conditions and remained depressed for 4h. Neither CWI nor CWT affected perceptual or performance measures over 4h. |
| Babak et al., 202117
|
20 young men with no CWI experience had their output power and RSADec measured. After a simulated soccer test and blood sampling, they were immersed in 15°C water for 15 min. 24h later, tests were repeated. Subjects were then divided into CWI recovery and passive recovery groups. After four weeks, tests were repeated. |
No significant effect of CWI on serum levels of AST and LDH before and after 4 weeks. No difference in power output and RSADec before and after cold water habituation. |
| Peiffer et al., 201018
|
10 male cyclists did two bouts of 25-min cycling in hot conditions (35°C, 40% humidity) followed by a 4-km time trial. Bouts were separated by 15 min of seated recovery in the heat or with 5-min CWI. Rectal temperature, cycling economy, VO2, average power output, and completion times were recorded. |
CWI led to a significantly lower rectal temperature before the second bout until its end. Power output was significantly higher with CWI, resulting in a faster completion time. Economy and VO2 were unaffected by CWI. |
| Hausswirth et al., 201119
|
9 well-trained runners did 3 simulated trail runs on a treadmill designed to induce muscle damage. They tested three recovery modalities (WBC, FIR, PAS) in a random order. Muscle damage markers were recorded before, 1h, 24h, and 48h after exercise. |
Muscle strength and perceived sensations recovered after the first WBC session, while recovery took 24 h with FIR and wasn't attained with PAS. No differences in plasma CK activity between conditions. WBC sessions within 48 h post-exercise enhanced recovery compared to FIR or PAS. |
| Kusuma et al., 202120
|
30 elite athletes did 3 series x 3 sets x12 reps of 85-90%RM workout. Post-exercise, they underwent CWI, CWT, or SS recovery. Body temperature, lactate, cortisol, flexibility, muscle pain, depression, anxiety, and stress were measured. |
CWI reduced lactate, cortisol, muscle pain, depression, anxiety, and stress. CWT maintained body temperature. SS increased flexibility. No significant difference in regeneration at 1st, 5th, 10th, and 15th minutes post-manipulation for all methods. |
| Panyakham et al., 202221
|
16 male soccer players (18–25 years old) played a 90 min match with a 15-min halftime. They were divided into CG and CWI groups. Blood samples were taken to measure IL-6, creatine kinase, and lactic acid before the match, after the first half, after halftime, post-match, and 24 h post-match. |
CWI during halftime decreased lactic acid levels and slowed down muscle fatigue. Muscle pain perception significantly decreased in the CG. No changes in IL-6, creatine kinase, and lactic acid between groups. CWI during halftime can be an alternative recovery method. |
| Poppendieck et al., 202022
|
Randomized crossover design with 11 participants performing two 8-week training periods with cooling or passive sitting after each session. Measurements included leg press 1-repetition maximum, countermovement jump, leg circumference, and muscle thickness. |
Cooling had small and negligible negative effects on 1-repetition maximum and countermovement jump immediately after training and moderate negative effects when comparing pre-training to follow-up. Cooling had a large negative effect on muscle thickness. |
| Article |
Study methods |
Results description |
| Roberts et al., 201423
|
Randomized crossover design with 10 physically active men performing high-intensity resistance exercise followed by either 10 min of cold water immersion (CWI) at 10°C or 10 min of active recovery (low-intensity cycling). Measurements included jump height, isometric squat strength, intramuscular temperature, venous blood samples for markers of metabolism, and muscle damage. |
CWI did not enhance recovery of maximal muscle function but allowed participants to lift a greater load during submaximal muscle function test immediately after CWI compared to active recovery. |
| Pointon et al., 201224
|
Ten male team-sport athletes performed intermittent-sprint exercise in the heat followed by either 20-min cold water immersion (CWI) or passive recovery. Measurements included neuromuscular function, muscle soreness, blood markers for muscle damage, core temperature, heart rate, and other physiological parameters. |
CWI accelerated the reduction in thermal and cardiovascular load, improved maximal voluntary contraction (MVC), and central activation immediately and 2-h post-recovery. However, MVC 24h post-recovery was attenuated with CWI. |
| Abaïdia et al., 201725
|
Ten physically active men performed eccentric exercise followed by either CWI (10 min at 10°C) or whole-body cryotherapy (WBC) (3 min at -110°C) recovery in a randomized crossover design. Measurements included strength, jump performance, soreness, and perception of recovery before and up to 72 hours after exercise. |
CWI showed a moderate benefit for jump performance, reduced soreness at 48 hours, and enhanced perception of recovery at 24 hours post-exercise. |
| Higgins et al., 201726
|
A systematic review and meta-analysis of 23 peer-reviewed articles (n = 606) examining hydrotherapy for recovery in team sports. |
CWI was found to be beneficial for recovery at 24 hours and 72 hours, whereas contrast water therapy (CWT) was beneficial at 48 hours. Both CWI and CWT improved perceptions of fatigue, but neither was beneficial for perceptions of muscle soreness. |
| Bongers et al., 201727
|
A comprehensive overview of current scientific knowledge on pre-cooling, per-cooling, and post-cooling techniques and their effectiveness in maintaining exercise performance in various ambient conditions. |
The article discusses the effectiveness of cooling interventions, underlying physiological mechanisms, and practical considerations for the use of different cooling techniques to improve exercise performance in thermally stressful conditions. |
| Avsiyevich et al., 201328
|
The study employed morpho-functional measurements and assessments to track the physical development and performance of male adolescents participating in powerlifting. It may have involved data collection and analysis of various physical attributes to tailor training plans based on biological development types. |
Use of indices of biological development in training for powerlifting in male adolescents positively affects their results and allows for individualized training plans. |
| Aghyppo et al., 202129
|
The research likely involved 40 secondary school students with mild to moderate musculoskeletal disorders. The study may have used a modified Romberg test to assess static balance before and after physical education sessions. The students were divided into groups and subjected to exercises and ball games, with data analysis to evaluate the effects on static balance. |
Exercises and ball games in physical education improve the static balance of students with musculoskeletal disorders, especially those with congenital defects. |
| Fyfe et al., 201930
|
The study involved 16 male participants who underwent resistance training for 7 weeks, with either CWI or passive recovery after each session. Data were collected on exercise performance, body composition, and molecular responses in skeletal muscle. Muscle fiber cross-sectional area and protein markers were measured, likely using biopsies and biochemical assays. |
CWI blunted muscle fiber hypertrophy but not maximal strength after resistance training, suggesting that post-exercise CWI may affect muscle growth. |
| Getto and Golden, 201331
|
The study involved 23 NCAA Division I athletes who were divided into three groups for different recovery interventions. Data on perceived muscular soreness, maximum vertical jump height, and 20-meter sprint time were likely collected before and after interventions. Statistical analysis, such as repeated measures ANOVA, was probably used to assess the impact of different recovery methods on the dependent measures. |
The study found no significant differences in recovery of speed, power, or perceived soreness among cold-water immersion, active recovery, and passive recovery groups. |
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