ENGLISH AS A LINGUA FRANKENSTEINIA: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE PERCEPTIONS OF EDUCATED PAKISTANI POPULACE

Abstract

This study explores how educated Pakistani professionals perceive the dominance of English and its effects on local languages and social structures. Though often viewed as a neutral lingua franca, English is framed here as a tool of linguistic imperialism, shaping education, economy, and identity. Guided by Robert Phillipson’s theory of Linguistic Imperialism and the metaphor of Lingua Frankensteinia, the study analyzes semi-structured interviews with four professionals. Findings reveal that English is seen as a path to upward mobility and global access but also as a source of cultural displacement and inequality. Local languages are increasingly marginalized, and English proficiency is tied to elitism and intelligence. The research calls for inclusive language policies that value indigenous languages while acknowledging English’s global role.

Keywords
Linguistic Imperialism; Lingua Frankensteinia; English in Pakistan; Socioeconomic Stratification; Cultural Linguistic Displacement

1. Introduction

The spread of the English language has been a result of colonization, the slave trade, globalization, and indefatigable linguistic planning and its implementation across the world (Jenkins, 2015). Today, English is the language of newspapers, science, medicine, technology, television, and the internet. Every third person in the world is presumed to be using English to a useful level in their communication (Crystal, 2003). The language has, over time, grown into several standard and innumerable nonstandard varieties. The language has not taken a plural form – Englishes. Terms such as World Englishes and Global Englishes have come to the fore due to the unrelenting evolution of the language (Seidlhofer, B., 2005). English has started to play a significant role in almost every aspect of the everyday life of individuals across the world, including their socioeconomic survival.

The intrusion of English into diverse aspects of life that impinge upon the very life survival of communities has been a well-documented phenomenon. Robert Phillipson (1992), who has worked extensively on the linguistic imperialism of English, classified English into different terminologies depending on its role in different domains of an individual’s life. Robert Phillipson (2003) describes English as a lingua of economics because of its excessive access to business and advertising, and as the language of corporate neo-liberalism. He also refers to it as a lingua emotive – the language of popular culture and entertainment; a lingua academia – the language of research publications, higher education, and international conferences; a lingua culture.

Nowadays, ideological analysis of English textbooks is widely applied in the field of sociolinguistics (Zhang et al., 2022). These analyses assume that English users may intentionally or unintentionally convey their ideologies via the language (Lee, 2017). Texts included in English textbooks are an essential medium for generating ideologies (Shah, Tariq, & Bilal, 2013).

In a nutshell, Pennycook (1995) believes, justifies, and rationalizes, English textbooks continuously shape learners’ identity projection and perception towards the outside world and naturalize language hegemony and standard ideology by creating a world in English or discourse imperialism.

The problem, however, is that English is not merely a language but rather represents a whole agenda. Social, moral, and cultural values and academic, political, and economic opportunities have, over time, been imperceptibly and covertly connected to English in such a way that English has started to impinge upon the life survival chances of a significant population across the world, including those in Pakistan. Although considerable research has been generated and conducted in Pakistan that explores the teaching and learning of English and the varieties it has evolved into, by focusing on the development of World Englishes. But this study attempts to explore how, to what extent, and in what ways English-centric ideology gets reflected and represented in the language perceptions of the educated class in Pakistani society.

Thus, this research aims to explore the perceptions of educated citizens of the federal government exhibiting a privileged stance on English. So, the study attempts to answer the following research question.

How do the perceptions of educated citizens of Islamabad exhibit a privileged stance on English?

2. Literature review

Language is but a way through which feelings, emotions, thoughts, and lifestyles are depicted. Language represents the social, cultural, and ideological aspects of a community that speaks it. Language is pivotal in the sense it gives existence and identity to the speakers who use it in their daily lives. Language is also considered as the most human of all human abilities. It implies that wherever humans exist, there will exist a language (Kuper, 1989). The connection between humans and language is inevitable.

The English language has reached a level that encompasses all other languages of the world. It is spoken in every corner of the world. Crystal has proposed that there are approximately seventy-five territories or countries where English is spoken either as a first language (L1), or as an official or more appropriately an institutionalized second language (L2) in fields such as law, medicine, government, and education. It has acquired the support of most of the countries in Asia, South America, and Africa. It has become the language of governance, law, medicine, education, and other important institutions of different countries (Crystal, 2003). English has a special status among other languages of the world. It is being spoken and learned almost everywhere in the world. The importance and use of English are rapidly increasing day by day. Now, it has become invincibly unstoppable. Its roots have been strengthened to a level where it is now impossible to ignore it or try to eradicate it from one’s system. It has also become unavoidable for a person who knows more than one language. It also facilitates multilinguals and makes them competent language users (Jenkins, R., 2014).

Different researchers and scholars who have conducted an abundance of research studies on the importance and growth of the English language have considered it to have a negative influence on other languages. They call it linguistic imperialism, as connected with British colonization. The British colonization came to an end by giving birth to several independent countries. They fled and left colonies physically, but their imperialistic language remained in the heart of every institution. It has reached a level where it is impossible to replace it or wipe it out of the government system. Physical and territorial independence did not ensure linguistic liberation. It resultantly deteriorates the role and importance of national and regional languages, but instead instills and promotes the English language (Phillipson, 1992).

2.1 English as a Lingua Frankensteinia

English as a language has spread across the world through the manipulative and exploitative process of colonialism, and imperialism followed by neo-colonialism and neo-imperialism as the Americans’ political, military, and economic might started dominating the whole world. In the British Raj, an English officer and educator, Macaulay (1835) had sagaciously advocated that Indians cannot represent themselves; they need to be represented. He also upheld the view that it is inevitable and impossible at the same time to educate the massive population while possessing limited resources and means. To solve this puzzle, “we have to form a kind of class that should be regarded as the interpreters and mediators who would be able to bridge the gap between us and the colonized. This class should be an epitome of ambivalence, who would be Indian in blood and color, but English in morals, tastes, opinions, world views, and intellect.’’ (Pennycook, 1995)

It simply reflects the ideological formation of such mental structures, which would adopt everything that the English people would want them to. These linguistic oppressive policies aimed to penetrate and promote the English language, replacing and stigmatizing the languages of the sub-continent and their cultures. The Indian languages were considered superstitious, and the negative impacts they had on the minds of the Europeans were described as morally debasing and corrupting (Jenkins, 2015).

The dominance of the English language has been inevitable, and it, consequently endangered, stigmatized, and threatened other indigenous cultures and languages of the world. To maintain their local languages, the Indigenous people’s endeavors are laudable, which are securing their identities and linguistic statuses. Therefore, such terms and concepts, like World Englishes, Native speakerism, and Multicompetence, have come into existence across the world (Kachru et al., 1985; Holliday, 2006; Cook, 1999).

To better understand the concept of endangering, stigmatization, shift, and the death of indigenous languages of Pakistan, we must first understand the covert and overt linguistic ideologies behind it. For this purpose, the researcher, Fauzia Janjua (2008), in her research study titled Political and Sociocultural Factors in Language Loss: A Study of Language Shift in North Pakistan tried to highlight the same issue of covert and overt linguistic ideologies. This research study aimed at identifying the sociocultural, economic, political, and other factors responsible for language loss in Pakistan. For this study, three languages that are on the verge of extinction were selected: Yadgha, Palula, and Domaki. This study regarded English as the major language and the reason responsible for the local languages’ shift and loss. It’s therefore pertinent to mention how language shift, from native or indigenous to the English language, has caused considerable linguistic and cultural damage to the small communities of North Pakistan.

2.2 English corrupts and debases other languages

Linguistic dominance has invariably been buttressed by ideologies that glorify the dominant language: as the language of God, the language of reason, logic and human rights, the language of modernity, and technological progress (Phillipson, 2009). A Ghanaian sociolinguist, Felicia Asamoah–Poku, describes that the minds and lives of the speakers are dominated to an extent that they start believing they can only use that foreign language in more advanced aspects of life, such as education, philosophy, literature, government and the administration of justice, etc. They forget to realize and appreciate the potentialities of their indigenous languages in certain walks of life. It could be argued that, such local languages, civilizations, cultures, and their forms are being perished by stamping them as degraded and corrupt by those who are the seats of progress and advance. English is considered a source of intellectual and moral elevation.

Phillipson (2009), in his article called Lingua Franca or Lingua Frankensteinia? English in European integration and globalization. The research study aims at investigating whether English could be regarded as a lingua franca or lingua Frankensteinia. It also takes into consideration and questions the neutrality of English as a lingua franca and links the expansion of English with the process of Europeanization and Americanization. The economies, cultures and politics of the European Union member states are regarded as the integrating part of the US-dominated world. It, therefore, explores the policies of the European Union for maintaining multilingualism and the current pressures and constraints in the academia of Europe. The analysis is done in terms of the processes, as the criteria for assessing whether English functions as a lingua franca or lingua Frankensteinia (Phillipson 2009).

It is believed that English, on the one hand, opens doors for some while closing doors for others. It is a tool that provides opportunities for progress and success, that opens its gates and penetrates its system, and deprives those who resist its exploitative nature of such worldwide benefits. This scholar is of the view that an Indian having experience with the English language considers it as a lingua Divina. It further makes an analogy that American teachers inform the immigrants that if English was good enough for Jesus, then it is also good enough for them (Chamaar, 2007).

Another true and real example of linguistic imperialism is that of an Indian young boy, Kanchedia Chamaar, who at the age of 18 realized that God understood and spoke nothing but English. While narrating his personal experience, he wrote that unfamiliarity with the lingua Divina was a source of intense shame and humiliation at the Delhi School of Economics in the 1970s. He was seen as unfit for any job while holding a master’s degree for applying to no fewer than one hundred and eight Indian firms over three years. Then, he moved to America and while pursuing his Ph.D. degree, he found that at US universities, even those who are not fluent in English are being considered as human beings (Phillipson, 1992).

It has been a fully prepared and well-articulated plan on the British side, which propagated the English language throughout the world. This is the vision of Condoleezza Rice¹ and the rhetoric of Tony Blair² of global leadership. He firmly believed that globalization begets interdependence and, in return, it begets the necessity of a common value system. It is also a fact that history has seen conflicts, such as people who accepted and opted for modernity, while others resisted its existence. Tony Blair, former prime minister of the United Kingdom, was also of the opinion that it has been the destiny of Britain to lead and supersede other nations over century upon century. Britain is obliged and responsible for the prosperity and guidance of other countries. This legacy should not be part of a destiny only, but that of their glorified history and future. And that Britain is a leader of nations or nothing (Keen, 2014).

In Scandinavian countries, the widespread concern in academic and political circles with domain loss signifies a perception that segments of the national languages are at risk from the English monster. Robert Phillipson, in his book Linguistic Imperialism Continued, has pointed out whether the winning of political independence led to a linguistic liberation of Third World countries. The answer is simply negative, that is, even after the independence of third-world countries from the British Empire, the language of the colonizers remained, though they fled physically (Phillipson, 2009).

Crystal points out that the estimates of languages in the world vary between 3,000 and 10,000, but by most definitions of a language, the figure lies between 6,000 and 7,000. It is being presupposed that about two languages will die each month over the next century. Many of the world’s languages are spoken by fewer than 1000 people. Trudgill, in his review of another book titled Grenoble and Whaley’s Endangered Languages (1999) that the British intelligentsia should worry about the world’s 6,000 or so languages, as many as 3,000 are in the process of dying out, and another 2,400 are endangered. No one factor is responsible for the loss and endangerment of languages, but the greatest share of responsibility falls upon the English language. The English language is a language of globalization, and its operation in such contexts in which the most politically and economically powerful English speakers have benefited from the spread of the language (Crystal, 2003).

Most Western countries are involved in the murder of languages because they do not give immigrants and refugees much chance to develop and maintain their languages. They are forced to learn the dominant language to enjoy that so-called freedom, to have a prosperous career, and to provide quality education to their children. It implies that the language, being considered a lingua franca, functions as a lingua Frankensteinia. An English teacher from Hungary argues in contempt that non-native English teachers suffer from an inferiority complex because they have internalized this notion of knowing too little about the language they teach (Jenkins, 2015).

3. Research Methodology

3.1 Research Design

The research design adopted for this study was exploratory (Walliman, 2011) in nature, underpinned by a social constructivist epistemological paradigm (Guba and Lincoln, 2012), which saw reality as multiple, shifting, and context-dependent. An exploratory research design was deemed appropriate for this study since it aimed to explore the dynamics of the existence of linguistic imperialism at the micro level. Methodologically, the study had been qualitative since the objective was to identify the dominant themes in perceptions that related to English as a Lingua Frankensteinia. As such, linguistic imperialism was the overarching theoretical basis, but Lingua Frankensteinia has been the specific and sub-theoretical framework of this study.

3.2 Theoretical Framework

This study was underpinned by a theoretical framework revolving around English as a Lingua Frankensteinia as presented by Robert Phillipson (2009, 2011, 2013, 2018). Although several scholars have later on worked under the theoretical construct of Linguistic Imperialism with a view to either extending or amending its focus (Frank 1969; Wallerstein 1991 and Harper et al. 2007, 2008), it was believed that Phillipson’s work has formed a sound theoretical basis for this study on two main counts. Firstly, Phillipson’s work was mostly focused on postcolonial countries such as Pakistan. And secondly, very little research has been generated in Pakistan that explored English from Phillipson’s perspective.

Explaining the construct, Phillipson (2013) has argued that English as a Lingua Frankensteinia demystifies how and why some languages enjoy a dominant position over other less powerful languages and how this dominance is propagated and promoted internationally. He further posits that while colonialism was an overt effort at dominating the entire world, the English language is being used both as a covert and overt imperialistic tool to dominate the entire population of the world through the ideology of English as the language of power, success, and elitism. Linguistic imperialism, or more specifically Lingua Frankensteinia, according to Phillipson (1992, 2009), may imply the following:

It is evident from the way the English language is systematically interlocked with culture, academic and educational institutions, media, economy/material systems, institutions, and politics.

3.3 Data Collection

The data was collected by conducting in-depth interviews with professionals holding higher positions in the government sector and the private sector of the capital. The main purpose and function of the interviews with people from different strata of life and professions has been to support one data with another, create and strengthen reliability between the data to get different insights, and also to see and explore the problem from different angles. Details are given below.

3.3.1 Interview Data

The data collection method was that of semi-structured interviews. Interviews were conducted with 10 male persons holding higher positions in Pakistan’s public and private sectors. The educated people include government officials, bankers, and businessmen. Teachers were not proposed to be a part of the interview participants since most of the English-centric research had been teacher-focused, and we already know much about teachers’ language-related perceptions (Roshid, Haider, Begum, 2018; Khan, 2016; Manan, 2019). The main purpose was to explore the perceptions of those holding power positions regarding the role and influence of the English language as against that of the indigenous languages. The interview data are expected to provide an insight into how and in what ways English as a lingua Frankensteinia is evident in the perceptions of the educated Pakistani populace. To uphold confidentiality and protect the identities of the individuals involved, all personal names referenced in this study have been replaced with pseudonyms. Detailed information about four of the participants has been provided in Chart 1 as follows:

Chart 1
Shows information about four Pakistanis from the public and private sectors who participated in the interviews:

No.	Name	Qualification	Profession	Age
1	Mr. Nawaab	graduation	Serving in the Atomic energy sector	40
2	Mr. Insha	graduation	Businessman	30
3	Mr. Sabaun	graduation	Assistant Director at FIA3	35
4	Mr. Intezaar	graduation	Businessman	30

3.4 Data Analysis

There was a wide range of approaches and methods to analyze qualitative data. However, we applied thematic analysis to interpret and analyze the collected data. The qualitative approach aims to collect and interpret the richest and most available data. According to Holliday (2016), there is a greater possibility of the researcher’s influence on the interpretation of the collected data. It is believed that the purpose of qualitative research is not to prove or disprove anything, but rather to generate beliefs and ideas that are sufficient to make us ponder again about what is going on in this world. Holliday envisaged the idea that the method of collecting data and the process of analyzing qualitative data are inseparable. So, this research has analyzed the collected data in the way Holliday (2016) has proposed to be conducted.

An ongoing dialogue and interconnectedness have been encouraged between collecting, writing, interpreting, and analyzing the desired data. During the data collection, keeping a research diary was of utmost help, as we have been making comments that were of great use during the process of analysis. The data, such processes as coding, determining themes, constructing an argument, and going back to the data, were followed. For instance, an interview was taken as a piece of data. To analyze it, the first step followed and applied was to convert the comments made on this piece of data into phrases or keywords to simplify it further. Then, such codes or keywords that occurred frequently and of significant frequency were grouped within themes to gain a clear idea and understanding of such data. Then, out of numerous divisions of themes into headings and sub-headings, an argument has been constructed to learn from the data. The last step in this whole process was to go back to the data to add or omit something from the extracts of the collected data.

The above-mentioned methods for analysing qualitative data are as follows:

• Coding: During this step, the comments made on each piece of data were converted to phrases or keywords. There has been one or more codes that stand for each piece of data.

• Determining themes: The codes that occurred frequently and which were of significant frequency were put together within themes.

• Building a coherent argument: In this step, themes were divided into headings and sub-headings to learn from the collected data and make an argument out of it.

• Going back to the data: to support the arguments that have been made through the extracts of the collected data, it is necessary to go back to the data, reassemble the codes, and possibly reconstruct the themes. Findings rendered from the study are elaborated in Chapter 5, which constitutes the conclusion.

4. Data Analysis

4.1 Introduction

In this chapter, we will take an exhaustive and detailed account of the perceptions of the Pakistani educated populace regarding the influence of the English language. The status of English as a monster or killer language has been the main focus of the study. we have tried to highlight the dominant and prevailing perceptions and behaviors of the Pakistani educated populace regarding the English language. The analysis consists of semi-structured interviews taken from 10 male-educated persons holding higher positions. We have analyzed four of them. The purpose of such interviews was to divulge the unconscious perceptions of the educated persons regarding the status of the English language. In this chapter, we have put forward the interconnectedness of English with every major discipline of mundane affairs. For the sake of clarification, it’s necessary to mention and inform the readers that the interviews have been transcribed from audio to text. In the following sections of analysis, we have quoted the exact words of the interviewees by providing page and line numbers.

4.2 Glorification of the English language (linguistically Imperialized)

Another substantial subject came into light from data analysis of interviews regarding the perception of the Pakistani educated class about the indisputable influence of the English language. Several interviewees displayed such ideological perception regarding the significant role it plays in the development of a country’s political, social, economic, and educational strata. For instance, one interviewee, Mr. Nawaab, proposes that Pakistani students need to have a strong command of English if they want to get better job opportunities of jobs, and have a successful life. Such linguistically imperialized perception is the result of colonialism, when the British Empire invaded the sub-continent, and the explicit ideology of spreading and promoting their language in the sub-continent attributed to getting jobs, power, elitism, and those who would speak it were able to attain a prestigious place and were considered modern, progressive, and rational.

All the wisdom, superiority, knowledge, and modernity have been associated with this language. After the independence, the British fled physically, but left a language that has been ideologically driven and penetrated the system covertly and overtly. It has been injected into the minds of the sub-continent people, and it has been instilled in the major institutions of countries like India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and other Asian countries. According to a Ghanaian sociolinguist who is describing how non-native English speakers have been linguistically imperialized by arguing that the English language has been internalized and rationalized in the context of the then-decolonized states (Poku, 2024). In such a state, the lives and minds of non-native English speakers are conditioned to the phenomenon that their language is dominated by another language. Without which, a sustainable personal and professional life, dealing with more advanced countries and aspects of life, including governments, philosophy, education, literature, the justice system, and the economic system, etc. Linguistic imperialism exploits and manipulates in such a sugar-coated way in which the minds, hearts, aspirations, attitudes, inclination of the non-native English speakers, who are considered to be the most educated, intellectuals, noblest, and prestigious are wrapped up in a way that, they are being prevented from realizing, appreciating, and recognizing the full potentialities and richness of the Indigenous languages (Phillipson, 1992)

Such linguistically imperialized, rather, paralyzed perception of the interviewee regarding English gets reflected in the glorification and exaltation of it by arguing that:

They would not get a good job if they do not know or learn about the English language. They need to have a command of English to be successful and get better jobs. We should not stick to the Urdu language because everything present and in the coming time is going towards English, and it is a gateway to success, and it is an international language, so that’s why people prefer the English language for their children (p. 1, lines 14-19).

The interviewee, Mr. Nawaab, is of the view that everyone is indulging in learning and using English as it works like opium. Like opium, English has intoxicated the educated and uneducated populace of Pakistan. Everyone thinks, wears, walks, and does everything in English, thereby consciously and unconsciously neglecting and forgetting the usage and propagation of their mother tongues. The interviewee, Mr. Nawaab, who is well informed of the damaging and hidden ideologies of the English language and how it is devaluing and killing the Indigenous languages, believes that the English language is a matter of survival, by stating: ‘’Yes, Of course, it is a killer language, because everybody is trying to learn, teach, think and do everything in English.’’ (p. 2, lines 2-3)

Another major theme that emerged from data analysis of interviews, indicating the perceptions of the Pakistani educated class about the indispensability of English for economic, business and commerce growth and development. Several interviewees proposed the significance and the capital role English plays in the context of Pakistan, implying the buttressed ideology of linguistic imperialism of English.

For instance, Mr. Insha displays how significant the English language is in the development, growth and stability of businesses at the intra-national as well as international levels. He mentions that the language has the ability, more than any other language, to assist people in prospering and expanding business and commerce at any level. English, being an international language, should be adopted and mastered to succeed in business life or general life. English has been linked with the prosperity and growth of a business as all the means, products, and processes are in a capitalist’s mind. The interviewee Mr. Insha, who is running and owns his own business, is of the view that a business cannot grow and prosper without the knowledge of English, as he puts his view: ‘‘But if you want to succeed in business life or life in general, English would assist you far better than any other language.’’ (p. 1, lines 23-24)

Another important issue came into view from data analysis of interviews with the significance of English at the micro and as well as at macro levels. Several interviewees depicted their perceptions regarding English by exalting and glorifying it explicitly.

For instance, one of the interviewees, Mr. Mashaal, unveils his perceptiveness, considering the English language as a tool through which one’s abilities and intelligence are being measured. He states that if a person knows and is efficient in the language, he is considered to be an intelligent person. English is linked with the competence, capabilities, and intelligence of a person. Those who are not well off in the language are, therefore, tagged as illiterate, ignorant, less intelligent, and considered inferior. Such stigmas are prevailing and getting forced day by day with the exaltation of English by the Pakistani educated class, perennially interested in getting their children educated in English. The parents of students also welcome the use of English as a medium of instruction at all levels, even if research suggests that basic education should be in the mother tongue of the student. It is not of great wonder to perceive that English is the emblem and identifier of elitist social status and power, and is considered the most desired language by associating national and international employability with English in the country (Rahman 1996, 2007).

The interviewee, Mr. Mashaal, is in a managerial post in a prestigious bank and showcases his insights into the indispensability of English in the growth and prosperity of students’ life, as it is considered a provider and security of future success and stability. His perception is linguistically imperialized by considering the English language as the only language, responsible for the prosperity and growth of individuals, communities, as well as the country overall, thereby ignoring the importance and value of national and local languages of the country. The interviewee, sagaciously, links the language with the intelligence, and talent of the students, as he states: ‘‘When I hear about English one thing comes into mind, that if a person who speaks English looks intelligent and bright person, and it’s my perception regarding the English language’’ (p. 1, lines, 3-4).

One of the substantial subjects, cleared by the interviewee, Mr. Sabaun, is of the view that to develop constructive and stable international relations, formulate, design and implement a progressive medium of education, and reinvigorate international corporations and cooperation, the English language functions as an engine by connecting and strengthening all the aspects of national and international dimensions. He is also negating and, thereby, devaluing the significance of the national, as well as the indigenous languages of the country, as he considers these languages a hurdle in achieving progressive and stable relations with advanced countries with great potential. It instigates the ideological perception which has imperialized the interviewee’s conception by glorifying and romanticizing the English language in the context of Pakistan. Such ideologically driven perceptions have been exhibited in the form of what Mr. Sabaun has depicted by putting his views thus: ‘‘English is a necessity for developing countries and if we prefer to adopt our regional languages for the medium of education then we will lag in international relations and international cooperation and all the aspects of activities of life having international dimensions. So, the English language is essential in these times’’ (p. 1, lines 9- 12).

Another central theme, which was clarified by the interviewee, Mr. Intezaar, evinced his insights by highlighting the pivotal role the English language plays in the government, as well as in public spaces. He conceives the notion that English enables and creates spaces for those who yearn to learn it. He is propagating the idea that the world needs and favours those who are effectively proficient in the English language. The interviewer also points out the impregnable status English has, and, consequently, other people are benefiting from it by putting their view thus:

I think the English language is one of those languages; if someone knows about that language, if someone knows how to talk in English or how to read in English, I think they can make some space, or they can make a place in this world. (p 1, lines 3-5)

Mr. Intezaar furthers his argument by proposing that the government should start appreciating and promoting this language of international dimensions and importance in every field. He is of the view that the government should propagate and instill the English language, which will function as a major language at the primary school level to make the students successful in this world. This instigates how the Pakistani educated class has been subjugated, and their perceptions linguistically imperialized by the mighty language. This ideological perception is reflected in the acumen of the interviewee by suggesting, that to make students successful in the world, the government should implement the English language at the primary level by saying: ‘‘I would say it is very important for the government to start appreciation and start working on bringing English language as one of the major languages in primary school to succeed in this world’’ (p. 1-2, lines, 1-3).

The interviewee, Mr. Intezaar, again strives to emphasize and to be able to convince people to adopt his conception by arguing that the economies of the world are interconnected and interdependent due to the emergence of the world as a global village. He further solidifies and makes his argument valid by stating that to prosper and grow, the learning of English is unavoidable. There is no chance of prospering and even surviving without being proficient in English. He is asking to keep the indigenous languages aside if one wants to create some space in this world. His judgments have been shadowed, and his perceptions are being linguistically imperialized as he is completely negating and throwing away the national and the indigenous languages of the country by stating that:

I would say that the world is like a global village; the economy is interconnected, so to prosper in this world, it’s better to learn English. Keep your language on the side, but there is no way you can prosper in this world if you don’t learn English. (p. 3, lines 12- 15)

It is also important to consider that Pennycook (2010) introduced the idea that the global linguistic landscape would have been different had the outcome of World War II been different. Other reasons also point towards the influence of English on the political, economic, practical, intellectual, as well as the entertainment aspects and systems of the country, which have injected and psychologically enslaved the then decolonized people to accept and believe that their survival is dependent on the English language.

4.3 English as a global language

Another major theme that emerged from data analysis of interviews was the imposition of the English language as a global and international language across the globe. It is being used in every major platform of the world, including the World Bank, the IMF, NATO, the United Nations, business and commerce, and in trading with advanced economies.

This point, discussed by one interviewee, Mr. Nawaab, who served in the Atomic Energy sector of Pakistan, proposes the idea that the formation, development, and spread of the English language, attributed as a global language, has been the result of the indefatigable determination of the British or American legacy and dominance across the world. Britain had invaded and colonized most of the world using soft power and exploitative ideologies, including the imposition of their language, their culture, alongside their lifestyle. Such instances of colonialism could be found in the form of the English language, established as the national, official, and co-official languages of the then-decolonized countries. The number of speakers of the English language is increasing rapidly across the world. The interviewee, Mr. Nawaab, is also of the view that everyone and everything is moving towards the global language, English. It is necessary to learn and master this global language, which helps in providing prestigious jobs at intra-national, as well as at international platforms. He also postulates the conception that English has been internalized in the system in a way that, whether you like it or not, you have to learn it as it is the need of the time. Such an ideological perception of the interviewee is reflected in the interview, considering English as a global language of great importance, as he states:

English is an international language, so I just think of English that it is a language, and it’s an international language which has had after great influence. Because English is an international language, you have to go further in English whether you like it or not. (p. 1, lines 3-6)

A substantial subject appeared from data analysis of interviews, conducted to get an insight into the perceptions of the Pakistani educated class regarding the status of English as a global language. Several interviewees displayed various language perceptions, but the most significant and prevailing ones consisted of English as a global language, considering its pivotal role and the unimaginable persistence and influence across the world.

For instance, one interviewee, Mr. Insha, who runs his own business, is of the view that without English, the whole world’s economies, trading, educational institutions, government agencies and bodies, business and commerce, and the concept of the global village will collapse. The English language works as a linking tool that connects and unites all the countries of the world, therefore, presenting the infinite opportunities and resources of prosperity and growth of the countries. It has harmoniously, in a business and commerce sense, brought the countries closer to lifting their economies and strengthening their foreign relations with each other. Even in the educational sector across the world, the demand for native English-speaking teachers is preferred, and they are considered more qualified than non-native English teachers. In China, schools, universities, and language institutes commonly prefer—often require—English teachers to be qualified native speakers, typically holding citizenship in countries like the U.S., U.K., Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, or South Africa, although a minority of the teachers have obtained the required teaching training qualification and methods. Even in advertisements for hiring English teachers, they explicitly state that the needed and required teachers should be native English speakers (Kirkpatrick 2007). The same notion prevails in the context of Pakistan, as the populace is in demand of native speaker English teachers, with the proposition that they are more intelligent and more qualified. Every educated and uneducated Pakistani parent wishes that their children should be educated in English medium, as it is an international language that will provide an opportunity for jobs, power, and prestige, and be more stable and more secure in terms of social and economic prosperity and growth. The same ideologically loaded perception, that of English as a global language and a language of globalization, is popularly normalized and internalized in the perceptions of the educated class, as Mr. Insha envisages that:

English is a language that is an international language, a global language. If we talk about globally and internationally, our system GED⁴ is a kind of system that has been borrowed from America, so we have to deal with our official things in English. English does have associates or help us in business if we talk about the international market. (p. 1, lines 4-6)

This significant theme came into force from data analysis of interviews taken from various male persons, serving in different respectable and professional sectors. Several interviewees exhibited their perceptive ideologies with the impregnable nature of English across the world. For instance, one interviewee, Mr. Sabaun, serving in the FIA, demonstrated that English is a necessity in the current age, and it covers all the international dimensions of the concerned field. He recognizes the value and influence of the language, which has acquired an international status as it is used as a medium of instruction and communication in education, as well as in dealing with developed countries with massive economies and resources. He also criticizes the irrational acceptance of ownership of it, and the illogical exaggeration of the language, which has engulfed the people in its hollow spin, in the context of Pakistan, at the expense of devaluing and debasing the rich national and regional languages of the country.

He is also of the opinion that students should be given a choice, whether he or she want to continue their education in English or Urdu medium. English should not be considered mandatory for the very beginning of educational institutions. Sometimes it is cumbersome for the kids to be exposed to the English medium; therefore, the initial education should be given in their languages: in their mother tongues. After that, at a higher level, if somebody wants to pursue the education of their choice, they should not be deprived of their choice of selecting either of the mediums.

Mr. Sabaun also depicts grave tendencies and policies that leave no choice for students. It simply means that English must not be an obstacle in getting an education, because there are students who face difficulties in acquiring a grip on it, and that is a hurdle in getting higher education. In Pakistan, English is a compulsory subject up to the undergraduate level, yet it often acts as a significant obstacle for many academically capable students. Those with strong intellect and ambition frequently fail their degrees not due to their knowledge, but because of insufficient English proficiency, ultimately derailing their prospects for pursuing a master’s degree. But the majority of the population willingly accepts and solidifies the penetration and internalization of English in the education sector, as well as in other main government bodies and agencies. It should not be considered their instinctive fallacies, but it has been penetrated and strengthened in every major institution of the then decolonized countries, which were convinced that their survival had been linked with the Imperial language. As the world has a global language and the economies are interconnected, English has become a driving force behind globalization; therefore, the whole world is moving towards it, owning it, internalizing it, mastering and promoting it in their respective government bodies. The same ideological perception is reflected in the perception of the interviewee, Mr. Sabaun, as he puts his view thus:

English is just a language that has acquired a worldwide scope. It is not our regional language; rather, it is a language having international dimensions, and it is a tool for communication and a medium of education across many countries. I think this language is a necessity in the current age. (p. 1, lines 3-6)

Substantial subject appeared from data analysis of interviews taken from the Pakistani educated populace, with the indispensability of English for academic, economic, political, and social prosperity, and growth of individuals, communities, as well as the country overall. Several interviewees displayed such ideological perceptions, considering the English language prevalent and dominant in the whole world, thereby, is conforming to the notion that it should be learned and is the need of the time. For instance, one interviewee, Mr. Intezaar, who owns and runs his own business and has several employees working for him, is of the view that they, as a business community, cannot afford any other language except English for the development and growth of their businesses. It is spreading with unprecedented speed across the world, with no parallel language in competition.

He is also suggesting that to create some space in this world, one has to learn this unequalled language. One cannot succeed and prosper, unless he or she acquires and master’s English language. He is also urging the government to start working and promoting English, as it is irreplaceable and indispensable for economic, political, business and commerce, educational, and media growth and prosperity. What Mr. Intezaar suggests is that the government should formulate and conform to the current language policy trends worldwide, which are situating English medium universities with globalization.

The consequences of such language policies would prove to be panacea in nature, and would resurge having pandemic symptoms as it would endanger and threaten other languages and cultures across the globe. Western civilization is considered to be endowed with attributes, which are interpreted by different cultures, which reinforce the political doctrine that western civilization is the only source of liberal and rationalistic ideas, along with other positive ascriptions like political and religious tolerance, reasonable inspection, open debate, agreement to differ, science and evidence, and rights and justice. Once the subjugated civilizations, more specifically the Eastern world, realize and recognize that many ideas that are taken to be quintessentially western have also prospered, and exist in other civilizations, we need to see that these ideas are not as culture-specific as they are sometimes claimed and contented (Amartya Sen, 2011). The interviewee, Mr. Intezaar, posits different perceptions by giving and considering English as a language spoken across the world, which has opened international doors and brought the economies closer, thus making the world a global village.

5. Conclusion

The main purpose of a language is to convey a message and communicate with other people. In early ages, language was limited to communicative function only. It did not carry any exploitative and manipulative ideological manifestations to dominate and control other tribes and nations. But with the advent of the British Empire and its invasion of different parts of the world made the language as a crucial tool through which they propagated English, and the associated culture, norms, traditions, and lifestyle with it. Pakistan has been one of the erstwhile decolonized countries, which considered and made English the official language of the country. It is important to notice that we have investigated the perceptions of the educated Pakistani populace regarding the English language. Hence, after an extensive review of the literature and analysis of the data, we have drawn out some findings and conclusions. The most significant is that of the linguistic imperialism of English and its impact on the indigenous languages of the country. English language has blurred and shadowed the perceptions of the Pakistani populace, who are linguistically imperialized by the language, therefore consciously or unconsciously, are endangering and stigmatizing the indigenous languages of the country. Therefore, the perceptions of the Pakistani educated and uneducated populace showcase the inevitability and indispensability of the English language across the world. Such linguistic imposition ostensibly led to the legitimization and solidification of English, with the populace perennially interested in getting their children educated in English.

5.1 Findings

Within the bounds and scope of this study, the study has presented the following findings:

English has formulated and created certain perceptions in the educated Pakistani populace, which have become inevitable in the sense that every Pakistani educated person is carrying it with him/her, and which has become part of them, thereby portraying the linguistically imperialized perceptions of the educated people, which resultantly stigmatize and endanger the local languages.

1. The present study has established the idea that the majority of the population is moving towards metropolitan cities for better opportunities for jobs and quality education. This ostensibly has made a paradigm shift, as the speakers of the local languages are shifting and adopting the English language, consequently endangering and killing the local languages.

2. The study has elucidated that English has become a globalized, as well as a localized language of the country, thereby linguistically imperializing and paralyzing the perceptions of the educated Pakistani populace.

3. This study also showed that English is interlinked with the economy, and is considered a global language, thereby there appears to be abundant state patronage still available at the macro-level for an English-centric language policy, indicating the presence of the ideology of English being a lingua Frankensteinia.

5.2 Possible Implications

1. Linguistic imperialism of the English language will continue to exist.

2. Language is becoming multi-model in this globalized world, and no one can rely on one language.

3. If educated people give positive gestures and attributes to the English language, the local languages will be oppressed, and the speakers of those languages will face problems.

4. The linguistically imperialized perceptions of the educated people will be responsible for killing the regional languages, thereby English as a Lingua Frankensteinia will continue to exist and flourish.

5. The study also implies that if the speakers of the endangered and stigmatized languages continue to support, preserve, and promote their languages, then such languages could be revitalized.

6. The readers of this study will make conscious efforts to imbue the speakers of their languages to make sure their languages get improved and remain intact by using them.

5.3 Recommendations

The following suggestions have been recommended by this study to be followed by future researchers in the relevant research study area to add to the paradigm of Linguistic Imperialism and Lingua Frankensteinia.

1. The researchers can explore the phenomena of Linguistic Imperialism and English as a Lingua Frankensteinia from a lens other than Phillipson’s, where English as a killer or monster language could be identified.

2. The researcher has excluded teachers as participants in interviews, because of the typical and traditional way of taking the perceptions of one section or profession of the country. Other researchers can include teachers as part of their research study.

3. Other researchers can also include parents as interview participants to find out what language they chose and prefer as the medium of instruction. Additionally, the students’ perceptions and responses about the English language could provide further ideas about the efficacy of English as the medium of instruction.

Notes

• 1
  Condoleezza Rice served as the U.S. National Security Advisor (2001–2005) and later as Secretary of State (2005–2009) under President George W. Bush, playing a central role in shaping American foreign policy during the post-9/11 era.
• 2
  Tony Blair, former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.
• 3
  The Federal Investigation Agency (FIA) is Pakistan’s primary federal law enforcement body, operating under the Ministry of Interior. Its core mandate includes investigating terrorism, cybercrime, human trafficking, financial fraud, corruption, and border security.
• 4
  “GED” stands for General Educational Development. It’s a series of four high school–level exams designed to certify that you possess the same academic skills typically acquired by high school graduates.

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

Datasets related to this article will be available upon request to the corresponding author.

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Edited by

• Section Editor:
  Roberta Pires de Oliveira

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  17 Nov 2025
• Date of issue
  2025

History

• Received
  21 Feb 2025
• Accepted
  15 Aug 2025