DESCRIPTIVE STUDY OF VICTIMIZATION AND BULLYING BEHAVIOURS IN ADOLESCENTS. COMPARISON BETWEEN PHYSICAL EDUCATION CLASSES AND THE GENERAL EDUCATIONAL CONTEXTAbstract
Several studies point to Physical Education as a suitable subject for the prevention of bullying.
Purpose The present study aims to identify and analyse the perpetration and victimisation which occur at a general level and in Physical Education in Secondary Education.
Method The study was conducted with 1,352 students from public schools.
Results The analysis of the results shows differences in victimisation; with direct and verbal violence in the general context and insults and exclusion in Physical Education; and perpetration; with direct and verbal violence in the general context and insults and hitting in Physical Education. There is a lower occurrence of bullying among older students and differences in the type of bullying according to gender, among girls and boys.
Conclusion Victimisation and perpetration behaviours are reproduced in a similar way in the general educational context and in the specific context of Physical Education.
Keywords
Bullying; Physical Education; Prevention; Secondary Education
Resumo
Vários estudos apontam a Educação Física como uma disciplina adequada para a prevenção do bullying.
Objetivo o objetivo deste estudo foi identificar e analisar a perpetração e a vitimização que ocorrem em nível geral e na Educação Física no Ensino Médio.
Método o estudo foi realizado com 1.352 alunos de escolas públicas.
Resultados a análise dos resultados mostra diferenças na vitimização, com violência direta e verbal no contexto geral e insultos e exclusão na Educação Física; e na perpetração, com violência direta e verbal no contexto geral e insultos e agressões na Educação Física. Há uma menor ocorrência de bullying entre os alunos mais velhos e diferenças no tipo de bullying de acordo com o gênero, entre meninas e meninos.
Conclusão os comportamentos de vitimização e perpetração são reproduzidos de forma semelhante no contexto educacional geral e no contexto específico da Educação Física.
Palavras-chave
Bullying; Educação Física; Prevenção; Ensino Médio
Resumen
Diversos estudios señalan a la Educación Física como una asignatura idónea para la prevención del acoso escolar.
Objetivo el presente estudio tiene como objetivo identificar y analizar la perpetración y victimización que ocurren a nivel general y en la Educación Física en la Enseñanza Secundaria.
Método el estudio se realizó con 1.352 alumnos de centros públicos.
Resultados el análisis de los resultados muestra diferencias en victimización; con violencia directa y verbal en el contexto general e insultos y exclusión en Educación Física; y perpetración; con violencia directa y verbal en el contexto general e insultos y golpes en Educación Física. Hay una menor ocurrencia de acoso escolar entre los alumnos de mayor edad y diferencias en el tipo de acoso escolar según el género, entre chicas y chicos.
Conclusión las conductas de victimización y perpetración se reproducen de forma similar en el contexto educativo general y en el contexto específico de la Educación Física.
Palabras clave
Acoso escolar; Educación Física; Prevención; Educación Secundaria
1 INTRODUCTION: BULLYING AND ITS PREVALENCE IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION CLASSES
Bullying is not a single-occurrence conflict, but a phenomenon of interpersonal intentional aggression that reemerges in a repeated and sustained manner, in which there is an imbalance of power between the aggressor and the aggressed – being recognised by both the aggressor and the direct and indirect observers as an unfair or immoral behaviour (Olweus, 1993; Ortega-Ruiz; Del Rey; Casas, 2016).
Although there are studies that deal with multiple predictor variables (Suárez-García; Álvarez-García; Rodríguez, 2020), the most recent meta-analyses indicate that bullying among schoolchildren appears to decrease with age and that the highest levels of incidence are between 11 and 14 years of age, with boys being generally more aggressive than girls (Menesini; Salmivalli, 2017; Romera et al., 2022; Zych et al., 2020; Zych; Ortega-Ruiz; Del Rey, 2015; Zych; Ortega-Ruiz; Marín-López, 2016). After several decades of research on the topic, prevalence rates remained constant over the years, suggesting that an average of 15% of students are typically involved in bullying behaviours (Zych et al., 2020). Numerous research studies associate bullying with absence from classes, lower levels of academic achievement, decreased self-esteem and suicidal ideation in the most severe cases (Barzilay et al., 2017; Menesini; Salmivalli, 2017; Polanco et al., 2022; Quintana-Orts; Rey; Neto, 2021; Samara et al., 2021; Van Geel; Vedder; Tanilon, 2014). Furthermore, the effects of bullying can extend into adulthood, affecting work, and interpersonal relationships, as well as leading to higher levels of depression (DeLara, 2019; Wolke; Lereya, 2015).
Most studies agree in grouping the aggressions that characterise this phenomenon as direct forms, identified as attacks that occur face-to-face, openly and directly confronting the aggressor against the victim; or indirect, defined as a covert action, which makes it difficult to identify the perpetrator of the actions, and aimed at damaging the social position of the victim (Smith et al., 2020). It can manifest itself in various forms, such as physical aggression, verbal aggression, humiliation or belittling (Hunt; Peters; Rapee, 2012), as well as in the form of social exclusion or rumour spreading, affecting the social reputation of the victim (Castañeda-Vázquez et al., 2020; Cook et al., 2010). The most common type of bullying observed in studies in Spain is direct and verbal bullying (Díaz-Aguado; Martínez; Martín, 2010; Romera-Félix; Ortega-Ruiz; Del Rey, 2017; Yo a eso…, 2016). However, differences have been observed in the type of bullying according to gender, with boys being more involved in physical and verbal bullying, and girls in relational bullying (López-Martínez et al., 2021) – relational aggression being understood as a more covert and subtle type of violence that aims to harm a child’s inclusion, friendships or acceptance in the peer group (Little et al., 2003). These results agree with evidence from studies conducted in other countries (Fagan; Lindsey, 2014; Rueger; Jenkins, 2014; Wang; Iannotti; Nansel, 2009), although some research has found no differences in relational bullying between boys and girls (Lansford et al., 2012; Sánchez-Queija; García-Moya; Moreno, 2017).
With respect to age, some studies indicate that younger students are more involved in physical and verbal bullying (Sánchez-Queija; García-Moya; Moreno, 2017) and older ones with relational bullying (Scheithauer et al., 2006). However, a study by Craig et al. (2009), which examined 40 countries, found that all types of bullying have high variability according to the country studied. It is necessary to consider that differences in bullying behaviours between gender and age may be influenced by cultural and social factors in the environment in which they take place. Therefore, an individualised and contextualised approach to understanding and preventing bullying is crucial (Nguyen et al., 2020).
Taking into consideration the study of behaviours associated with bullying in the context of Physical Education (PE) classes, one could frame this subject area as a setting in which bullying situations tend to occur more frequently, with interactions taking place in larger spaces, with less surveillance or in closed spaces such as locker rooms (Atkinson; Kehler, 2012; Jiménez-Barbero et al., 2020; Vaillancourt et al., 2010). The scientific literature identifies frequent physical and verbal aggression in Physical Education classes (Correa et al., 2018), gender discrimination (Carney; Merrell, 2001; Hurley; Mandingo, 2010), bullying situations related to excessive competitiveness in educational activities (Koc, 2017) and bullying related to differences in terms of lower physical competence (Bejerot et al., 2013; Bejerot; Edgar; Humble, 2011; Hurley; Mandingo, 2010). One of the main consequences of these bullying behaviours is that they can cause many students to feel a lack of motivation to attend Physical Education classes (Goodboy; Martin; Goldman, 2016; Montero-Carretero; Barbado; Cervelló, 2019).
Regarding the forms of bullying in PE classes, Kuntsche et al. (2006) found that the most common form of bullying in PE amongst Polish adolescents was verbal aggression (31.4%) followed by relational aggression (12.4%). In turn, Borowiec et al. (2022) found a higher percentage of bullying behaviours expressed through relational and verbal aggressions, as well as a lower number of cases concerning physical aggressions.
Regarding gender, Vianna, Souza and Reis (2015) found higher levels of physical aggression among boys, e.g., physical aggression and stealing; and higher levels of relational aggression among girls, e.g., defaming and excluding. In contrast, Borowiec et al. (2022) reported that boys showed more victimisation and aggression behaviours in all domains than girls. In relation to the type of victimisation, physical victimisation was more prominent among boys than social bullying behaviours.
As it relates to age differences, more direct forms such as physical and verbal aggression were more common in younger students (Borowiec et al., 2022; Kuntsche et al., 2006; Vianna; Souza; Reis, 2015), while indirect forms, such as social bullying, were more common in older students (Twardowska-Staszek; Zych; Ortega-Ruiz, 2018).
Research on bullying in the field of PE also highlights the role that this subject can play as a resource for the prevention of bullying. PE should be oriented towards the development of collaborative values and competition with oneself, designing specific anti-bullying actions without losing sight of the curricular objectives (Benítez-Sillero et al., 2020a, 2020b; Castañeda-Vázquez et al., 2020; Jiménez-Barbero et al., 2020). Likewise, PE has shown potential in mitigating bullying behaviours when teachers apply methodologies that avoid situations where there is excessive competitiveness and improve situations of social interaction (Benítez-Sillero et al., 2020a, 2020b; Gano-Overway, 2013), at the same time respecting students differences (Jesina et al., 2022).
The serious consequences of bullying (Barzilay et al., 2017; Menesini; Salmivalli, 2017; Polanco et al., 2022; Quintana-Orts; Rey; Neto, 2021; Samara et al., 2021; Van Geel; Vedder; Tanilon, 2014) and the maintenance of prevalence rates over the years (Zych et al., 2020) mean that the study of this phenomenon continues to be relevant in different contexts such as the Physical Education classroom (Benítez-Sillero et al., 2020a, 2020b; Castañeda-Vázquez et al., 2020; Jiménez-Barbero et al., 2020). Therefore, it is essential to continue research into the prevention of this type of violence in the early stages, in order to reduce the mental health problems that bullying can cause in the long term, (Lereya et al., 2015). In this sense, it is important to develop interventions that support students’ psychological and social well-being in safe and respectful school environments (Muellmann et al., 2017). To effectively address the issue of bullying in Physical Education classes, it is essential to thoroughly understand its specific dynamics. It is necessary to study in detail aspects such as the types of behaviours that predominate in this context, given that these elements have not been explored with the same depth as bullying in the general educational environment. This detailed knowledge can be highly valuable for future research, as it will enable the design of more effective prevention programmes based on a comprehensive understanding of the particularities of bullying in PE classes.
Therefore, this research aims to identify and analyse the types of bullying behaviours, perpetration and victimisation that occur in Physical Education classes according to the perception of Secondary School students. In the context of this study, victimisation refers to the experience of being targeted by bullying behaviours. The specific objectives we set are:
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Identify types of perpetration and victimisation behaviours specific to Physical Education classes and the ones specific to the general context of the school.
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Compare the types of bullying behaviours specific to Physical Education classes with the types specific to the general context of the school environment.
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Analyse the types of bullying in Physical Education classes in terms of sociodemographic variables such as students’ gender and age.
Considering the importance of PE classes as part of the general educational context, the proposed division is made for analytical purposes in order to obtain differentiated results between the general context and the context of the PE classes.
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 PARTICIPANTS
The descriptive, cross-sectional study involved 1,352 schoolchildren aged 12 to 18 years (M = 14.22, SD = 1.67), of whom 672 identified as girls (49.7%) and 680 identified as boys (50,3%), from six schools in southern Spain (five in the province of Córdoba and one in Huelva). The questionnaire offered the option of answering, by means of an open-ended response, another gender identification or not answering this item. Thus, no subject opted for these options. The participants belonged from the first to fourth year of secondary education (12-16 years) and the first year of baccalaureate (17-18 years).
2.2 PROCEDURE
In this research, permissions were requested from the school boards of the participating schools, as well as consent from the families, which were completed in written form. The project was approved by the human research ethics committee of the Universidad de Córdoba. Students were informed about the study and were told that their participation would be anonymous, confidential and voluntary. The computer-based questionnaires were administered in the classroom via computers and mobile devices. The average time for completing the questionnaire ranged between 20 to 30 minutes.
2.3 INSTRUMENTS
Bullying
The European Bullying Intervention Project Questionnaire (EBIPQ) (Spanish version in Ortega-Ruiz; Del Rey; Casas, 2016) – composed of 14 items with Likert-type response options from 0 to 4, where 0 = never, 1 = once or twice, 2 = once or twice a month, 3 = about once a week and 4 = more than once a week – was used to measure bullying. The first 7 questions refer to victimising behaviours and the final 7 questions to perpetrating behaviours (Table 1). This questionnaire asks how often each of the behaviours occurred in the last two months. The questionnaire focuses on bullying at the general level of the entire school contex. In addition, the incidence of bullying in Physical Education was measured using the same questionnaire but including “in Physical Education” as the final phrase in each question. To ensure that pupils did not confuse experiences of bullying in Physical Education with those in the general school environment, the questionnaire assessing bullying in Physical Education was administered after the questionnaire assessing bullying in the general school environment. This organisation helped students understand that these were the same questions but with a different purpose. It was also indicated in bold and large print that the questions were specific to PE. The researcher in charge of administering the questionnaires verbally indicated that, after providing their answers about the general educational context, the students were expected to answer exclusively about bullying behaviour in PE classes. The dimensions of victimisation and perpetration both at the general context level and in Physical Education showed good validity in the confirmatory factor analyses (Benítez-Sillero et al., 2024).
2.4 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
First, descriptive data were found for the bullying behaviours, both at the level of Mean and Standard Deviation, as well as the frequency of repetition of each of the behaviours. After checking the non-normality of the sample data, the differences in each of the behaviours at the general level and in Physical Education were compared using the Wilcoxon test. The Mann-Whitney U-test was used to compare gender differences for each of the behaviours. The effect size was calculated with Cohen’s test (Cohen, 1988). Values greater than 0.8 are considered large, between 0.8 and 0.5 moderate, between 0.5 and 0.2 small, and less than 0.2 are considered trivial. Analyses were carried out with IBM SPSS 25. The seven categories of bullying used in the presentation of the results were derived from the seven questions featured in the questionnaire used.
3 RESULTS
Table 2 and Table 3 show the bullying behaviours of victimisation and aggression in the context of general education and Physical Education and compare them. The total number of bullying behaviours was significantly higher in the general school context – as behaviours in Physical Education were included as part of the behaviours in the general context. The most common victimisation behaviours at the general level were name-calling and being subjected to offensive words, while in PE they were exclusion and name-calling. Concerning perpetration, the most common behaviours at a general level were insults and, at a second level, offensive words and hitting, with the same tendency in Physical Education. Considering that bullying in PE includes bullying at the general educational level, significant differences were found (p = 0.000), indicating higher mean values in the general context than in PE. Among the behaviours where the effect size was higher were the victimisation behaviours of receiving insults and offensive words and enduring rumours. While the remaining victimisation and perpetration behaviours had a small effect size, and the perpetration behaviour of exclusion was trivial.
Bullying behaviours of victimisation between general education and Physical Education settings and comparison between them
Bullying behaviours of perpetration between general education and Physical Education settings and comparison between them
Table 4 shows the correlations between victimisation behaviours in Physical Education and age, all of which are negative and significant. This indicates that younger subjects experience these victimisation behaviours more, although theft occurs less frequently.
Table 5 shows the correlations between perpetration behaviours in Physical Education and age, indicating that age exhibits a significant negative association with behaviours such as hitting, stealing, and excluding. This means that younger individuals tend to display these behaviours more than older ones.
Table 6 and Table 7 compare bullying behaviours of victimisation and aggression in general education and PE between boys and girls. At the general education level, significant differences with trivial effect size were found for all behaviours except for stealing, which was not significant. Girls were more likely to engage in behaviours related to being called names, being ostracised and having rumours spread about them. Boys suffered more than girls from behaviours related to being hit, insulted and threatened. In perpetration, boys were to a greater extent perpetrators than girls in behaviours such as hitting, insulting, threatening and stealing. In the context of PE classes, girls were significantly more victimised than boys in the behaviour of being excluded. Boys suffered more threats to a greater extent, although both with a trivial effect size. In the perpetration behaviours, the results in PE were in line with those of the general educational level in hitting, insulting and threatening, being higher in boys, and varied in the behaviour of stealing, which was not significant in PE.
Comparisons between bullying behaviours of victimisation between the general education and Physical Education contexts between boys and girls
Comparisons between bullying behaviours of perpetration between the general education and Physical Education contexts between boys and girls
4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
This research study aimed to identify and analyse the type of perpetration and victimisation behaviours that occur in Physical Education classes according to the perception of students and to compare them with the general context of the educational environment in a descriptive way. In this sense, the most common behaviours, both in terms of victimisation and perpetration, at a general level, were insults and being subjected to offensive words, i.e., direct and verbal violence, in accordance with the trend of previous reports and research (Díaz-Aguado; Martínez; Martín, 2010; Romera-Félix; Ortega-Ruiz; Del Rey, 2017; Yo a eso…, 2016).
In PE, specifically, in the case of victimisation, both social exclusion and insults stand out, following the trend of previous studies in this specific context (Borowiec et al., 2022). In relation to perpetration, aggression is accentuated through insults, swearing and hitting, in this case, all direct bullying behaviours (Kuntsche et al., 2006). A different trend to that of the general educational context is detected only in the case of victimisation, as bullying behaviours of a relational type, in this case exclusion, are presented in the same way as others of a direct verbal type, reinforcing the idea of a risk context to pay special attention to (Atkinson; Kehler, 2012; Jiménez-Barbero et al., 2020; Vaillancourt et al., 2010).
Next, the aim was to analyse the types of bullying in PE classes and in the general educational context according to the age of the students. In this sense, the general trend identified in previous studies has been confirmed, which is that aggression and victimisation behaviours in bullying among schoolchildren seem to decrease with age (Menesini; Salmivalli, 2017; Romera et al., 2022; Zych et al., 2020; Zych; Ortega-Ruiz; Del Rey, 2015; Zych; Ortega-Ruiz; Marín-López, 2016) and that younger students are involved in direct bullying and older ones in relational bullying, both in the general educational context (Sánchez-Queija; García-Moya; Moreno, 2017; Scheithauer et al., 2006) and in Physical Education classes in particular (Borowiec et al., 2022; Kuntsche et al., 2006; Twardowska-Staszek; Zych; Ortega-Ruiz, 2018; Vianna; Souza; Reis, 2015)
We also analysed bullying victimisation and aggression behaviours in the context of general education and PE between boys and girls. At the general education level, it is found that girls are more likely to be relationally victimised and boys are more likely to be directly victimised, in line with the general trend of previous relational studies (Fagan; Lindsey, 2014; López-Martínez et al., 2021; Rueger; Jenkins, 2014; Wang; Iannotti; Nansel, 2009) and in the same way in PE classes (Vianna; Souza; Reis, 2015). As far as perpetration behaviours are concerned, boys stand out from girls in behaviours such as hitting, insulting, threatening and stealing (Menesini; Salmivalli, 2017; Romera et al., 2022; Zych et al., 2020; Zych; Ortega-Ruiz; Del Rey, 2015; Zych; Ortega-Ruiz; Marín-López, 2016) and the same occurs in PE in terms of hitting, insulting and threatening, with these behaviours being more frequent than those of girls (Borowiec et al., 2022). These issues may be related to how masculinity is understood in PE (Jachyra, 2016). For example, in relation to masculine status, which misunderstands physical strength as a characteristic of masculinity (Smith; Brain, 2000) and which leads to a higher incidence of physical and verbal aggressive behaviours (Borowiec et al., 2022).
As the main conclusions of the study, it is necessary to highlight the fact that the behaviours of both victimisation and perpetration typical of bullying are reproduced in the Physical Education classroom with a similar tendency to the general context. Concerning victimisation, it is worth highlighting the fact that the adolescents in the sample present bullying behaviours of a relational type, in this case of exclusion, in the same way as others of a direct type.
4.1 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
The educational implications of the study include the proposal of intervention designs to prevent more specific bullying depending on the behaviours detected. Identifying the most common bullying behaviours in PE classes will favour the design of actions aimed at mitigating these behaviours.
In this sense, the involvement of teachers in the fight against bullying is fundamental. This requires teachers to become aware of this phenomenon by respecting and positively highlighting differences in students (Jesina et al., 2022), as well as applying methodologies focused on social interaction and activities with a low competitive load (Benítez-Sillero et al., 2020a, 2020b; Gano-Overway, 2013). It is also necessary to review the possibilities of incorporating interventions based on scientific evidence that, inserted in the curriculum of the subject, favour the reduction of bullying (Benítez-Sillero et al., 2020a).
On the other hand, improving the self-control of student perpetrators within the subject of PE could be approached from different perspectives. One example would be to train such students by exposing them to situations where rules are changed or unfairly applied. This would allow them to cope with and manage intense emotions and practice self-control in a safe environment (Benítez-Sillero; Córdoba-Alcaide, 2020).
It is also considered necessary, in the light of previous studies, to reinforce the work with students victimised, as they seem to be more vulnerable in the specific context of PE and experience situations of rejection to a greater extent. The results of this work can guide specific interventions in the area in accordance with the line of research that points to the subject of PE as a resource for the prevention of bullying (Benítez-Sillero et al., 2020a, 2020b; Castañeda-Vázquez et al., 2020; Jiménez-Barbero et al., 2020).
Training victims in assertiveness could be a useful strategy in PE classes, using classroom dynamics, cooperative games and group tasks – opportunities for students to express their convictions, desires or needs through an attitude that lies between passivity and aggressiveness. Teaching students to ask for the ball to be passed to them, to take a certain position in a game of chase, etc., are skills that are often underdeveloped in students who are victims of their peers (Córdoba-Alcaide; Ortega-Ruiz, 2020). The aim would be to provide them with resources that would allow them to express their emotions or needs, as well as to identify situations of bullying and know the means to report it.
4.2 LIMITATIONS OF THE WORK AND FUTURE LINES OF RESEARCH
Among the study’s limitations, it should be noted that the sample was selected for convenience and that it was conducted using descriptive questionnaires at a single point in time, which may reflect the situation at that moment under circumstances beyond our knowledge. Additional longitudinal studies would be necessary to investigate the evolution of these behaviours over time in diverse educational contexts, as well as to evaluate the impact of specific interventions. Furthermore, expanding the sample to include more schools would be interesting to explore differences in types of bullying in Physical Education based on the geographical location of the school or the pedagogical approach adopted by teachers.
As for future lines of research, we also propose exploring the relationship between these behaviours and aspects related to teachers’ perceptions, their interaction with other interpersonal factors and social relations, as well as their potential connection with motivation in PE classes.
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FUNDING
This project was financed by the Directorate General for Innovation and Teacher Training of the Regional Ministry of Education of Andalusia (PIV-021/20) as an educational research project that was conducted in 2020.
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RESEARCH ETHICS
The project was approved by the human research ethics committee of the Universidad de Córdoba (07/17/2020)
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HOW TO CITE
BENÍTEZ-SILLERO, Juan de Dios; MURILLO-MORAÑO, Javier; ARMADA CRESPO, José Manuel; CÓRDOBA-ALCAIDE, Francisco. Descriptive study of victimization and bullying behaviours in adolescents. Comparison between Physical Education classes and the general educational context. Movimento, v. 31, p. e31013, Jan./Dec. 2025. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22456/1982-8918.135774
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Edited by
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EDITORIAL RESPONSIBILITY
Alex Branco Fraga* https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6881-1446Elisandro Schultz Wittizorecki* https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7825-0358Guilherme Nothen** https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9344-4772Mauro Myskiw* https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4689-3804Raquel da Silveira* https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8632-0731* Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Escola de Educação Física, Fisioterapia e Dança, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.** University of Edinburgh. Moray House School of Education and Sport. Edimburgo. United Kingdom.
Publication Dates
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Publication in this collection
30 June 2025 -
Date of issue
2025
History
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Received
26 Sept 2023 -
Accepted
31 Jan 2025 -
Published
31 May 2025
