Self-handicapping strategies in educational context: construction and validation of the Brazilian Self-Handicapping Strategies Scale (EEAPREJ)

Boruchovitch, Evely; Rufini, Sueli Edi; Ganda, Danielle Ribeiro; Miranda, Lucia Cerqueira; Almeida, Leandro Silva de

doi:10.1186/s41155-022-00210-6

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Research • Psicol. Reflex. Crit. 35 • 2022 • https://doi.org/10.1186/s41155-022-00210-6 copy

Self-handicapping strategies in educational context: construction and validation of the Brazilian Self-Handicapping Strategies Scale (EEAPREJ)

Authorship SCIMAGO INSTITUTIONS RANKINGS

Abstract

Self-handicapping strategies refer to the set of choices and attitudes adopted to minimize blame for failure and increase the value of success in achievement situations. This paper aims to describe the stages of construction and the psychometric analysis of a scale to measure the self-handicapping strategies of university students. In study 1, the major steps for the construction of the scales and initial results are reported. The internal consistency indices were acceptable and the principal component analysis revealed factors with little explanation of data variance. In study 2, data from a sample of 834 students from several undergraduate courses of different Brazilian universities were subjected to exploratory factor analysis using the minimum rank factor analysis (MRFA) method and the matrix of polychoric correlations. The parallel analysis criterion for factor retention indicated the one-factor solution as the best fit to data. The importance of having a valid and reliable measure to assess self-handicapping strategies in educational contexts and the promising use of the scale in actions to improve learning in higher education are discussed.

Keywords:
Self-handicap; Self-handicapping strategies; Assessment measures; Higher education

	Authors (year)	Sample	Method	Results
Self-Handicapping Scale (SHS)	Rhodewalt et al. (1984)Rhodewalt, F., Saltzman, A. T., & Wittmer, J. (1984). Self-handicapping among competitive athletes: The role of practice in self-esteem protection. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 5(3), 197-209. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324834basp05033. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324834basp050...	27 university students 32 athletes	Internal consistency (Cron- bach's α)	α = 0.78 r = 0.74
Jones and Rhodewalt (1982)Jones, E. E., & Rhodewalt, F. (1982). The self-handicapping scale. Unpublished manuscript, Princeton University.			Test-retest reliability
	Strube (1986)Strube, M. J. (1986). An analysis of the self-handicapping scale. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 7(3), 211-224. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324834basp07034. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324834basp070...	168 university students	Cronbach's α Extraction of principal components (PCA)	α = 0.62 6 one-dimensional factors 10 items
	Akın (2012)	585 university students	Cronbach's α Test-retest EFA AFC	0.90 0.94 1 factor Good fit
	Clarke and MacCann (2016)Clarke, I. E., & MacCann, C. (2016). Internal and external aspects of self-handicapping reflect the distinction between motivations and behaviours: Evidence from the self-handicapping scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 100, 6-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.03.080. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.03.0...	484 university students	Parallel analysis EFA (MLE) CFA	2 factors (internal and external) Acceptable fit for 13 items
	Akar et al. (2018)Akar, H., Doğan, W. B., & Üstüner, M. (2018). The relationships between positive and negative perfectionisms, self-handicapping, self-efficacy and academic achievement. European Journal of Contemporary Education, 7(1), 7-20. https://doi.org/10.13187/ejced.2018.1.7. https://doi.org/10.13187/ejced.2018.1.7... . Version: Akın (2012)	350 university students	Cronbach's α CFA	0.97 Acceptable fit for 25 items
	Barutçu Yıldırım and Demir (2019)Barutçu Yıldırım, F., & Demir, A. (2019). Self-handicapping among university students: The role of procrastination, test anxiety, self-esteem, and self-compassion. Psychological Reports, 123(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294118825099. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294118825099...	801 university students	Cronbach's α	0.74
	Version: Akın (2012)
	Jensen and Deemer (2020)Jensen, L. E., & Deemer, E. D. (2020). Attachment style and self-handicapping: The mediating role of the imposter phenomenon. Social Psychology of Education, 23, 1259-1276. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-020-09580-0. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-020-09580...	946 university students	Cronbach's α (2 factors)	Internal 0.76 External 0.72
	Şahin and Çoban (2020)Şahin, F., & Çoban, Ö. (2020). Effect of school climate, students ‘self-handicapping behaviors and demographic characteristics on students’ achievement. Inquiry in Education, 12(2), Article 6. Version: Akın (2012)	981 university students	Cronbach's α CFA	0.60 Good fit for 1 factor
	Karami et al. (2020)Karami, A., Khodarahimi, S., Ghazanfari, F., Mirdrikvand, F., & Barigh, M. (2020). The prediction of distress tolerance based on the feeling of loneliness and self-handicapping in students. Personality and Individual Differences, 161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.109994. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.1099...	360 university students	Cronbach's α	0.80

Self-handicapping strategies	N/%
Distraction in the classroom (do and think about other things, talk)	10/ 25%
Poor time management for school assignments	6/15%
Failure to do the tasks recommended by professors, such as reading and assignments	6/15%
Lack of efforts to do the tasks well	5/12.5%
Failure to attend classes/miss classes or leave the classroom	3/7.5%
Procrastinate	3/7.5%
Report physical and psychic symptoms, such as tiredness, anxiety, and nervousness	3/7.5%
Sleep very little the day before a class or test	1/2.5%
Make excessive efforts or more than necessary	1/2.5%
Engage in many simultaneous activities	1/2.5%
Lack of organization in the study environment	1/2.5%
Total	40/100%

Factors	Loadings	Items
Factor 1	0.7431	20-Some students postpone some important tasks until the deadline set by the professor. If they get a bad grade, they say the assignment was done in the last minute.
	0.6874	21-Some students do not organize their time very well, so they need to stay awake for several nights in a row to do an important assignment. If they get a bad grade, they say they were too sleepy.
	0.6527	23-Some students do not dedicate enough time to an important assignment. If the result is not good, they say they were not engaged.
	0.5706	14-Some students do other things (watch television, listen to music or use the internet) knowing they have little time to do an assignment. If they do not get a good grade, they say the assignment was too long.
	0.5662	1-Some students study only the day before the test. If they do not get a good grade, they say they did not have enough time to study the whole material.
	0.5631	17-Some students do not prepare for a test and then feel very anxious. If they get a bad grade, they blame anxiety.
	0.5460	13-Some students do not read the texts recommended by the professors before the class. If they get a bad grade, they say it was because the texts were too boring.
	0.4662	12-Some students postpone studying and doing academic assignments, and often fail to do them. If they do not do well in the course, they say it was due to lack of time.
	0.4647	22-Some students are focused on non-essential details of an important activity and do not dedicate to its content. If the grade is not what they expected, they say they had no time to do a good assignment.
	0.4535	18-Some students do not pay attention in class, so that if they do not do well in the course, they say that the classes are very boring.
Factor 2	0.7391	4-Some students use their cell phones during the class. If they do not get a good grade, they say it was because they did not understand the teacher's explanation.
	0.6592	24-Some students read entertainment magazines during classes. If they get a bad grade, they say it was because they did not understand the subject.
	0.657	10-Some students go to parties even when they have an important assignment. If they get a bad grade, they say the proposed assignment was too complex.
	0.5852	5-Some students leave the classroom frequently. If they get a bad grade on the test, they say it was because they missed important content.
	0.5314	11-Some students talk to classmates during the class. If they do not do well in the course, they say that their friends distracted them.
	0.4199	9-Some students always find an excuse, apparently acceptable, to use as an explanation in situations that do poorly in college.
	0.4131	16-Some students miss many classes. If they do poorly in the discipline, they say they did not have access to the content
	0.4130	7-Some students do not prepare well for an oral presentation and so are very nervous at the time of exposure. If they do not perform well, they say nervousness got in the way.
	0.3998	6-Some students go out even when they have an important assignment. If they get a bad grade, they say they had little time to do it.
	0.39811	15- Some students report they have to stay with friends and/or boyfriend/girlfriend. If their assignment is not good, they say they had no time to dedicate to studying.
	0.34124	19- Some students report they have to stay with friends and/or boyfriend/girlfriend. If their assignment is not good, they say they had no time to dedicate to studying.
Factor 3	0.6096	8-Some students intentionally engage in too many activities. If they do not do well in the course, they say they were too busy with other things.
	0.6059	3-Some students do not seriously dedicate themselves to academic activities. If they do not do well in the course, they say they need to help a family member
	0.5442	2-Some students do not study hard and when they do not get a good grade, they say it is not possible because the course has a heavy load.

V	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13	14	15	16	17	18	19
1	1
2	0.41	1
3	0.34	0.37	1
4	0.40	0.40	0.67	1
5	0.41	0.41	0.57	0.65	1
6	0.23	0.34	0.33	0.45	0.51	1
7	0.31	0.41	0.60	0.61	0.63	0.57	1
8	0.27	0.32	0.56	0.48	0.48	0.38	0.63	1
9	0.45	0.38	0.35	0.43	0.50	0.43	0.53	0.48	1
10	0.37	0.37	0.44	0.40	0.45	0.37	0.46	0.43	0.56	1
11	0.42	0.39	0.45	0.39	0.50	0.41	0.51	0.47	0.59	0.57	1
12	0.32	0.29	0.46	0.51	0.59	0.47	0.56	0.45	0.54	0.50	0.66	1
13	0.25	0.28	0.35	0.35	0.35	0.37	0.44	0.42	0.42	0.41	0.44	0.35	1
14	0.08	0.28	0.29	0.33	0.32	0.33	0.46	0.42	0.31	0.27	0.31	0.33	0.39	1
15	0.37	0.25	0.25	0.29	0.42	0.39	0.36	0.36	0.61	0.50	0.55	0.45	0.35	0.42	1
16	0.39	0.36	0.30	0.34	0.45	0.41	0.42	0.39	0.53	0.44	0.49	0.43	0.41	0.38	0.59	1
17	0.27	0.37	0.24	0.32	0.39	0.47	0.45	0.31	0.46	0.42	0.45	0.43	0.42	0.40	0.47	0.57	1
18	0.39	0.31	0.19	0.32	0.35	0.31	0.32	0.28	0.53	0.41	0.50	0.45	0.36	0.36	0.61	0.53	0.50	1
19	0.24	0.39	0.53	0.55	0.59	0.43	0.63	0.61	0.38	0.47	0.51	0.54	0.45	0.46	0.38	0.32	0.43	0.33	1

Variables	% of variance
Variables	Current data	Random mean	95 percentile random order
1	49.96^a a Number of factors recommended when 95th percentile is considered	10.51	11.83
2	8.82	9.74	10.79
3	5.74	9.12	10.02

Item	F	M	SD	As	Ku	h2
1. Some students study only the day before the test. If they do not get a good grade, they say they did not have enough time to study the whole material.	0.51	1.95	0.84	0.68	- 0.07	0.55
2. Some students do not study hard and when they do not get a good grade, they say it is not possible because it is a heavy course load.	0.54	1.55	0.73	1.25	1.12	0.61
3. Some students use their cell phones during the class. Ifthey do not get a good grade, they say it was because they did not understand the teacher's explanation.	0.65	1.41	0.72	1.82	2.82	0.84
4. Some students leave the classroom frequently. If they get a bad grade on the test, they say it was because they missed important content.	0.69	1.33	0.67	2.18	4.31	0.78
5. Some students go out even when they have an important assignment. If they get a bad grade, they say they had little time to do it.	0.75	1.37	0.70	1.96	3.28	0.75
6. Some students intentionally engage in too many activities. Ifthey do not do well in the course, they say they were too busy with other things.	0.63	1.57	0.81	1.35	1.07	0.66
7. Some students go to parties even when they have an important assignment. If they get a bad grade, they say the proposed assignment was too complex.	0.77	1.23	0.59	2.91	8.64	0.76
8. Some students talk to classmates during the class. If they do not do well in the course, they say that their friends distracted them.	0.68	1.35	0.67	2.08	4.17	0.75
9. Some students postpone studying and doing academic assignments, and often fail to do them. If they do not do well in the course, they say it was due to lack of time.	0.74	1.62	0.83	1.21	0.65	0.77
10. Some students do not read the texts recommended by the professors before the class. If they get a bad grade, they say it was because the texts were too boring.	0.67	1.77	0.83	0.88	- 0.03	0.57
11. Some students do other things (watch television, listen to music or use the internet) knowing they have little time to do an assignment. If they do not get a good grade, they say the assignment was too long.	0.74	1.67	0.86	1.01	0.15	0.72
12. Some students report they have to stay with friends and/or boyfriend/girlfriend. If their assignment is not good, they say they had no time to dedicate to studying.	0.73	1.42	0.73	1.73	2.36	0.81
13. Some students do not prepare for a test and then feel very anxious. If they get a bad grade, they blame anxiety.	0.58	1.69	0.85	1.07	0.35	0.54
14. Some students study the wrong content for the test. If they get a bad grade, they say that is the reason.	0.54	1.31	0.64	2.26	5.00	0.69
15. Some students postpone some important tasks until the deadline set by the professor. If they get a bad grade, they say the assignment was done in the last minute.	0.68	1.85	0.94	0.83	- 0.33	0.92
16. Some students do not organize their time very well, so they need to stay awake for several nights in a row to do an important assignment. If they get a bad grade, they say they were too sleepy.	0.69	1.69	0.91	1.13	0.20	0.69
17. Some students are focused on non-essential details of an important activity and do not dedicate to its content. If the grade is not what they expected, they say they had no time to do a good assignment.	0.64	1.59	0.81	1.23	0.70	0.69
18. Some students do not dedicate enough time to an important assignment. If the result is not good, they say they were not engaged.	0.60	1.84	0.92	0.79	- 0.40	0.61
19. Some students read entertainment magazines during classes. If they get a bad grade, they say it was because they did not understand the subject.	0.73	1.17	0.53	3.64	13.94	0.93
Mean (standard deviation)	29.45 (8.75)

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[1] *Correspondence: evely@unicamp.br