Influence of Values and Parenting Styles Perceived by Children in the Value Transmission

– In order to better understand the relationship between parenting styles and parental values perceived by children and their values, 119 children were invited to answer the Basic Values Survey – Children’s version, the Parenting Styles Inventory, and a sociodemographic questionnaire. Results showed that the guardian’s perceived value priority does not depend on the parenting style perceived by children. Furthermore, positive parenting style is related to a greater value congruence between guardians and children, and parenting style and values are explanatory variables of the values endorsed by the children. The values and parenting styles perceived by children play an important role in the transmission of values between guardians and children.


responsáveis e crianças e que os estilos e os valores parentais percebidos se apresentam como v
riáveis explicativas dos valores endossados pelas crianças.Desse modo, concluiu-se que os valores e estilos parentais percebidos pelas crianças em seus responsáveis apresentam papel importante na transmissão valorativa.PALAVRAS-CHAVE: valores, estilo parental, congruência valorativa, transmissão valorativa, crianças

Family plays a pivotal role in the children's psychosocial development, representing the main channel for culture, values, and socially appropriate behavior transmission.Thus, the relationships established in the family environment will influence individual's cognitive, ethical, and moral dimensions.This influence comes from the parental socialization practices prioritized in child-rearing (Nascimento & Leal, 2017).The present study analyzed how parenting styles and values observed by children in their parents or guardians relate to the values endorsed by these same children.

Parenting Styles comprise a set of educational strategies or parental socialization practices used by parents to guide their children's behavior, promoting education and socialization (Gomide, 2006(Gomide, /2011)).The model proposed by Gomide (2006Gomide ( /2011) ) has been an important reference for understanding positive and negative parental socialization practices, as well as their impacts on children's social development.From this perspective, parenting styles can be structured as: positive, when they contribute to the development of prosocial behaviors in children, and negative, when they promote antisoci l behavior (Gomide, 2006(Gomide, /2011)).The positive style expresses parental socialization practices of positive monitoring and moral behavior.Positive monitoring involves parents' knowledge about their children's activities, also including the affection displayed between them.

Moral behavior, on the other hand, directly refers to value transmission, helping children to discriminate between right and wrong through positive models (Prust & Gomide, 2007).

Practices associated with the development of antisocial behaviors, and therefore negative parenting styles, are negligence, inconsistent punition, negative monitoring, lax discipline, and physical abuse.Negligence is related to parents' lack of attention to their children's needs, and it may also refer to interactions without affection.On the other hand, inconsistent punition refers to punishing or reinforcing children's behavior a cording to the parents' mood, culminating in children distinguishing the parents' mood and not their own behavior.Negative monitoring expresses excessive supervision over the chil ren's lives, avoiding dialogue with the parents to protect their privacy.Lax discipline involves the non-compliance with rules established by parents, who omit themselves when confronted by their children.Finally, physical abuse happens when parents harm their children, arguing that they are educating them (Nascimento & Fernandes, 2017;Prust & Gomide, 2007).

Indeed, it is through parental socialization practices that parents and guardians guide children's behavior towards moral principles and development of autonomy to ensure their subsequent inclusion in the social group (J.M. Oliveira & Alvarenga, 2015).In the family context, different ways of behaving and building social relationships are promoted (M.R. Oliveira & Santos, 2018), values are established, and the mediation of their assimilation process takes place (Prestes et al., 2014).Through parental socialization strategies, values are formed and reformulated, based on the family's life (Moraes et al., 2007); the efore, parent-child interaction patterns are directly connected to the generational transmission of values (Soares et al., 2020).In this study, values are operationalized from the Functional Theory of Human Values, which considers them as guiding principles of behavior (Gouveia, 2013;Gouveia et al., 2014).

In this model, values assume two basic theoretical functions: guiding behavior and expressing human needs.These functions bring together, respectively, three types of orientation (social/interpersonal, personal/intrapersonal, and central/general), and two specific types of motivators (humanitarian/idealist and materialist/pragmatic) (Vilar et al., 2020).The social orientation corresponds to the group related values, emphasizing the collective well-being and observance of social norms.The personal orientation involves values that aim at achieving personal goals and individual benefit.The central refers to the compatib lity of the previous types of orientation and includes values ranging from basic physiological conditions to aesthetics and self-actualization needs.Considering the type of motivator, materialistic values are associated with practical ideas, aimed at specific goals and social norms, while humanitarian values endorse an universal orientation, based on more abstract ideas and principles (Gouveia, 2013).Combining the functions in a 3 x 2 matrix yields six subfunctions: normative (social-materialist), interactive (social-idealist), existence (central-materialist), suprapersonal (central-idealistic), promotion (personalmaterialist), and excitement (personal-idealistic) of values (Vilar et al., 2020).

Human values and transmission of values play an important role in people's development and their role in society (Barni et al., 2013).The degree of similarity between parents and children, regarding the values prioritized by each one, presents as a significant result of the process of socialization and transmission of values; therefore, similarity produces compatibility and subjective well-being, reducing conflicts and increasing commitment in the family (Barni et al., 2014).

In this direction, Grusec and Goodnow (1994) suggest the existence of two steps in the process of values internalization.Initially, the children per eive the parental values, and then they must decide whether to accept or reject these values.This perspective is supported by Ciciolla et al. (2017), by stating that, similarly to what happens with other constructs (e.g, attitudes), value priorities are shaped mainly from the information that children perceive about the importance attributed by their parents to certain values to the detriment of others, followed by their assimilation.

According to Soares et al. (2020), despite what parents report about their own values, the perception and understanding of the children about them may be more significant regarding the modeling of their values and behaviors, including the aspects related to their psychosocial well-being.Therefore, when it comes to the value transmission, the concept of value congruence is highlighted, which refers to the degree of which parents and children attach the same importance to a specific value.Thus, the greater the value congruence, the more successful the value transmission will be (Knafo & Schwartz, 2009;Soares et al., 2020).

Thi process will be enhanced by the parental affectivity, that is, the more affectionate the parents are in their relationship with their children, the more efficient the value transmission will be (Friedlmeier & Trommsdorff, 2011;Medeiros et al., 2016).This confirms the perspective that parents can influence their children's values through different parental socialization practices (Döring et al., 2016).In fact, as demonstrated in the classic study by Rohan and Zanna (1996), parental authoritarianism and children's perception of parental responsiveness are factors that also influence the process of value transmission.

Due to these aspects, based on the aforementioned theories (Gomide, 2006(Gomide, /2011;;Gouveia, 2013), this study is divided into three specific steps: (a) analyzing whether there is value difference due to the child's perception of parenting style (positive or negative), (b) verifying, from the parenting styles perceived by the children, the magnitude of success in the value transmission, considering the congruence between the values perceived by the children in their guardians and their own values, and, finally, (c) assessing the predictive power of the values and parenting styles perceived by the child in the guardians on the r value priorities.


METHOD Participants

Participants were 119 children, aged between 6 and 12 years old (M = 9.36; SD = 1.90), mostly female (59.7%), protestant (48.7 %), with a high level of religiosity (42%), declaring the mother as the main guardian (75%).Furthermore, they were distributed between public (39%) and private (60%) schools, attending the 1st (10%), 2nd (13%), 3rd (13%), 4th (23%), 5th (17 %) and 6th (24%) grades of elementary school.Most children reported living only with father and mother (29%) or with father, mother, and siblings (25%).This was a non-probabilistic sample.


Instruments

Participants completed a survey with ques

ons aiming to charac
erize the sample, such as age, gender, education, religion, and level of religiosity.In addition to these questions, the following instruments were included.

Basic Values Questionnaire -Children (QVB-I): instrument adapted by Gouveia et al. (2011), consisting of 18 items assessing each of the 18 theoretically proposed values (Health; Success; Tradition; Equality; Emotion; Social Support; Stability; Power; Religiosity; Arts; Pleasure; Affectivity; Survival; Prestige; Obedience; Knowledge; Stimulation; Coexistence) (e. g., referring to the value Health, D

not get sick
always being excited, willing to play; and avoiding doing things that harm health).Those are organized as three items for each subfunctions: Excitement; Promotion; Existence; Superpersonal; Interactive; Normative.Consideri g the content of the items, participants are asked to indicate the importance that each value has in their lives, according to a five-point scale, represented by emojis and numbers, ranging from 1 (no importance) to 5 (maximum importance).As for the psychometric properties of the measure, literature points out suitable indicators, with Cronbach's alphas ranging from 0.51 (suprapersonal subfunction) to 0.72 (interactive subfunction; Gouveia et al., 2011).This study used two forms of assessment: in the first one, the participant indicated how important each value is to them, and in the other one, they indicated the importance they believe the value has for their guardian (mother, father, grandmother, grandfather, uncle, aunt, or others).The instrument used presented alpha coefficients ranging from 0.20 (existence subfunction) to 0.46 (experimentation subfunction) for the self-report measure (instrument answered by the participants about their own values) and from 0.30 (suprapersonal subfunction) to 0.62 (interactive subfunction) for the version answered about the values perceived in those guardians (hetero report).Although alphas are considered low, they are not uncommon when related to human values measures (Gouveia et al., 2014;Wachelke & Rodrigues, 2015).In general, in order to understand these indicators, the high consensus between the items should be considered, in addition to the low number of items in each factor (Gouveia et al., 2009).Thus, the number of items per subfunction (three items), associated with the sample size, can affect the measure's reliability indicators.

Parenting Styles Inventory (IEP): an instrument developed by Gomide (2006Gomide ( /2011)), seeks to assess how some practices used by parents can influence the development of antisocial or prosocial behaviors in children and adolescents.This instrument has three questionnaires: one referring to the father's parental socialization practices, answered by the child; a second, also answered by the child, about the mother's parental socialization practices; and, finally, a version answered by the father, mother, or guardian about their own practices.The instrument is composed of 42 items covering the five negative parental socialization practic s: physical abuse, inconsistent punition, lax discipline, negative monitoring, and negligence; and the two positive ones: positive monitoring and moral behavior (Gomide, 2006(Gomide, /2011)).For the three versions, answers are given according to a 3-point scale, ranging from 0 to 2, where 0 = never, 1 = sometimes, and 2 = always.As developed by Gomide (2006Gomide ( /2011)), the final IEP score consists in the parenting styles index, calculated by subtracting the sum of positive practices (positive monitoring and moral behavior) from the sum of negative practices (physical abuse, inconsistent punition, lax discipline, negative monitoring, and negligence).For the present study, however, only one version answered by the child was used, referring to their guardian, who is a reference for the child (mother, father, grandmother, grandfather, uncle, aunt, or others).In the Brazilian context, Cronbach's alphas for each factor indicated reasonable coefficients of internal consistency, ranging from 0.47 (negative monitoring) to 0.82 (physical abuse) in the maternal version, and 0.62 (negative monitoring) to 0.87 (physical abuse) in the paternal version (Gomide, 2006(Gomide, /2011)).In this research, the instrument completed by the participants about their guardians presented alpha coefficients ranging between 0.37 (negative monitoring, six items) to 0.65 (moral behavior, six items).


Procedures

Initially, the conduction of the research was requested in some institutions of early childhood education, and, after their permission, the enrolled children guardians were contacted, consenting to participate by signing the Informed Consent Form.The child's consent was also requested, by signing the Consent Term.The study complied with Resolutions no.466/12 and no.510/16 of the National Health Council (CNS, acronym in Portuguese) and its realization was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the university where the research was carried out (CAAE nº 55141116.0.0000.5054).Data collection was conducted by trained researc

rs.Each chi
d was asked to identify who they considered to be their main guardian and then to respond to the instruments described above.The average time to complete the questionnaire was 25 minutes.

Regarding the cognitive development particularities of different age groups, it is important to note that, during data collection with younger children (6 to 8 years old), individual monitoring was provided by the researchers during the reading of the questionnaires, minimizing biases in the administration of the instruments among children of different ages and ensuring adequate understanding of what was being requested.Thus, the data collection carried out with this age group was conducted in an individual interview format with smaller groups (3 children and 3 trained researchers).For older children (9 to 12 years old), data collection was carr ed out collectively, with groups of 8 to 10 children, in which each participant answered the questionnaire individually, directing any doubts to the two researchers present at the time.


Data analysis

The data was analyzed using the software IBM SPSS 21 (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences).In addition to descriptive statistics, other statistics were carried out to verify the research objectives.Due to potential particularities regarding the cognitive and social differences of distinct age groups, it was decided to include the participants' age as a variable in some of the analyzes performed and described below.

Initially, a Student's t-test for independent samples was performed in order to check for possible differences in the magnitude of the children's value priorities as a function of their perception of the parenti

style (positi
e or negative).In this analysis, parenting styles scores, answered by the children, were transformed into a categorical variable.For this purpose, the participants' scores were standardized by subtracting them from the sample mean and dividing the result by the standard deviation.However, as this procedure creates negative scores, the standardized score (z) was converted into a T-score, using the formula: T = 50 + 10z.Conside ing the empirical median as a cutoff point for each of the two age groups mentioned, the standardized values of the Parenting Styles variable perceived by children were divided into above and below the cutoff point, resulting in two categories: lower scores, indicating the perception of negative parenting styles in their guardians, and higher scores, indicating the perception of positive parenting styles in their guardians, for both groups.For a subsequent analysis, participants were divided into two groups distributed by age group, 6 to 8 years old (group 1) and 9 to 12 years old (group 2).In these groups, the cutoff points to consider the perception of parenting style as positive or negative were, respectively, Md = 52.07 and Md = 50.78.

Before proceeding with the analyzes that aimed to respond to the other objectives, moderation analysis was conducted between the children's types of orientation (social, central and personal) and those perceived in their guardians, as well as the parenting style perceived in the former group.We used these analyses to verify the possible influence of the variable age on the relationship between the other variables mentioned.

Subsequently, to verify the congruence between the children's values and those perceived by their guardians, a Dyadic Data Analysis (DyadicDA) was carried out, consisting in a paired data analysis (Alferes & Kenny, 2009); therefore, i tra-dyadic correlation coefficients (Within-dyad correlations; Kenny & Acitelli, 1994) were calculated.Similar to the correlation coefficient, the intra-dyatic correlation also varies between -1 (total incongruence) and +1 (total congruence).In this direction, coefficients below 0.30 (absolute value) indicate low associations, whereas coefficients above 0.50 (absolute value) indicate high associations (Cohen, 1988).

Finally, we also sought to perform hierarchical linear regression analysis considering personal (excitement and promotion), central (suprapersonal and existence) and social (interactive and normative) values to verify the predictive power of perceived parenting values and styles on children's value priorities.Hierarchical linear regression analysis allows the increment of variance examination of each variable added to the model (Hair et al., 2009).


RESULTS

From means comparison tests, possible differences in value priorities perceived by the children in their guardians were evaluated, due to the parenting styles perceived as positive and negative, conside ing the two age groups (6 to 8 and 9 to 12).The results showed that no significant differences (p > 0.05) were observed between the groups means of perceived parenting styles (positive and negative) regarding the value priorities perceived by the children in their guardians (see Table 1).Thus, it is observed that the value priorities perceived in the guardians are presented independently of the parenting style perceived in the guardians.In other word

the val
e priorities perceived in guardians are not distinguished, due to the type of parenting style that the child perceives in them.

Thereafter, to verify the influence of children's age on the relationship between the values perceived in their guardians and the values endorsed by themselves, moderation analyzes were conducted for each of the three types of value orientation (personal, central and social).All interactions were not significant, indicating that age does not have a moderating rol in the relationship between central [B = 0.22; SE = 0.15; t = 1.46; p = 0.14], personal [B = 0.13; SE = 0.16; t = 0.85; p = 0.39] and social values [B = 0.12; SE = 0.12; t = 1.13; p = 0.31] perceived in their guardians and their own values.

Similarly, we sought to verify whether the participants' age w uld influence the relationship between the parenting styles perceived in their guardians and the children's values for the three types of value orientation.The results of this analysis indicated that only the interaction for the central orientation was significant [B = 0.15; SE = 0.05; t = 2.79; p = 0.01], with interactions for personal [B = 0.03; SE = 0.07; t = 0.49; p = 0.06] and social values [B = 0.07; SE = 0.06; t = 1.23; p = 0.21] not significant.Despite the significant result for the moderating role of the children's age in the relationship between the parenting styles perceived in the guardians and their central values, based on parsimony, and c nsidering that, in this sample, age did not present a moderating role for the other interactions studied, we decided to carry out the subsequent analyzes considering the whole sample.

In order to verify the congruence between the children's values and those perceived in their guardians, the intra-dyadic correlation coefficients were calculated according to the two groups: guardians perceived with negative parenting styles and guardians perceived with positive parenting styles.Correlations were calculated between the values represented by the six subfunctions, dividing them into two groups: children's own values and values perceived in their guardians.The results of the correlations between the children's values and the values perceived by them in their guardians who were categorized as having a negative parenting style are shown in Table 2.In addition, the results of t e correlations between the children's values and the values perceived by them in their guardians who were categorized as having a positive parenting style are described in Table 3.

As shown in Tables 2 and 3, the results allow us to confirm the existence of congruence between the children's values and those perceived in their guardians; for both parenting styles groups, all correlations presented were positive and statistically significant (p < 0.05).However, the correlations observed in the group of guardians perceived with positive parenting styles were, in general, higher when compared to the group of guardians perceived with negative parenting styles.The coefficients presented in the first roup ranged between 0.48 (excitement and suprapersonal) and 0.77 (normative), whereas in the second group the coefficients were between 0.28 (suprapersonal) and 0.55 (promotion).

Considering the previous results, we sought to verify the predictive power of parenting styles and the values perceived by children n their guardians over the values they endorsed.Hierarchic l linear regression analyzes were conducted for each type of value orientation (personal, central, and social values).

Step 1 consists of the values perceived in the guardians.Step 2 consists of adding the parenting styles perceived in the guardians to the model.The results are described in Table 4.For the three types of orientation, the results indicate that the values perceived in the guardians are significant explanatory variables of the children's values in Step 1.In Step 2, the quation remains significant when the parenting styles variable is added to the model, so that the values perceived in guardians remain a significant explanatory variable.

For personal values, the model with the variables mentio

d was able
o explain 37% of the variance of this type of orientation in children.Regarding central values, the model, with both variables, has an explanatory power of


DISCUSSION

The main aim of this research was to investigate the relation between parenting styles and values perceived by children in their guardians and child's values.We sought to verify how values and perceived parenting styles are related, and to assess if there are differences between the groups of perceived parenting styles: guardians with parenting styles considered negative and those with parenting styles considered positive as for the values dimensions perceived in them by the children.

Results showed that values perceived in the guardians did not differ according to the type of parenting style perceived in them.It is conjectured that, although values are determinant for the orientation of human actions (Gouveia, 2013;Gouveia et al., 2015), they are not determinant to establish the strategies used by parents/guardians for the socialization of children.Therefore, guardians may signal to children that they share the same value prior ties as other guardians with a different parenting style than their own; in other words, guardians with different parenting styles may endorse the same human values.

The possible influences of the participants' age on the relationships between our variables of interest were examined and we found that, considering the two age groups (6 to 8 years old, and 9 to 12 years old), age does not act as a moderator of the relationship between values perceived in the guardians and values endorsed by the child in the present sample.As for the association with p renting styles perceived in guardians, it was identified that, in regard only to central values, age played a moderating role in the relation between the variables.

Central values are considered a pillar of the Functional Theory of Human Values and a source of reference for the other values.They are related to general purposes of life, ranging from the most basic aspects (such as the need for survival) to the more general needs, for example selfactualization (Gouveia et al., 2014), associated with values viewed as more abstract (such as art and beauty).

Given the complexity of the content of central values, it can be inferred that certain parental socialization practices perceived by children need to be associated with advances in child development, to benefit the adoption of these values by them.Increasing age can help in the process of recognizing the practices employed by guardians when trying to transmit central values.As for personal and social values, it is understood that, on a more concrete level, the actions related to the expression of these values may be more evident in the guardians' behavior and can be perceived by children of different age groups.Thus, guardians who prioritize personal values (according to the children) can employ and reinforce behaviors to ensure individual benefits and reach personal goals.Furthermore, guardians who prioritize social values, also according to the children's perception, can use behaviors that denote th appreciation of collective aspects, such as social interaction and harmony among individuals in their group, as well as reinforce these practices in children.

Based on the particularities of positive and negative parenting styles, we analyzed the effectiveness of the child's perception of the parenting style in the value transmission, considering value congruence between values perceived in the guardians and children's values.The similarity between guardians and children's values has been an important indicator of the effectiveness of the parental role in children's socialization (Barni et al., 2013(Barni et al., , 2014;;Döring et al., 2016;Knafo & Schwartz, 2009).In order to meet this purpose, we performed intra-dyadic correlation analysis between scores


Variables B SE β β


Social Values

Children's Valu s

Step of the children's value subfunctions and those perceived by them in their guardians, separately for the group with parenting styles perceived as negative and the group with parenting styles perceived as positive.

Results indicated moderate to high levels of values congruence in both groups of perceived parenting styles (r > 0.40).However, it is noted that guardians with styles perceived as positive presented higher correlations in all subfunctions compared to guardians perceived with negative parenting styles.Suprapersonal subfunction was the one with the lowest correlation coeff cient in this second group (r = 0.28).These results show that guardians perceived with more positive parenting styles are more likely to succeed in value transmission, especially considering the children's perception.

For the internalization of values, first, children must perceive which values are endorsed by their parents/guardians and then accept them as their own (Barni et al., 2011;Ciciolla et al., 2017;Grusec & Goodnow, 1994;Knafo & Schwartz, 2009).If children accurately perceive their parents' values and accept them as their own, value congruence between parents and children will be high (Knafo & Schwartz, 2009;Medeiros et al., 2016).Furthermore, this acceptance or rejection will be influenced by the existence of a warm relationship between parents and children (Grusec & Goodnow, 1994).Barni et al. (2011) supported this aspect.In their study, the quality of parent-child relationship acts as a significant predictor of acceptance of parents' values and their conse uent internalization.According to the authors, the willingness to accept parental values increases in a close and supportive family context, since this promotes in children a greater desire to obey their parents.

Similarly, Friedlmeier and Trommsdorff (2011) identified maternal acceptance and control function as moderating variables; specifically, the highest levels of value congruence were found between dyads in which children perceived mothers s less controlling.In this sense, the authors indicated that excessive parental control can be seen as a threat to individual autonomy, reducing children's motivation to act in accordance with guardians' desire.

Value congruence between parents and children provides greater compatibility between them and increases commitment between family members, reducing conflicts, and consequently, increasing subjective well-being.In additi n, sharing values with people who are part of the same group promotes identification between them, boosting acceptance of common goals and actions that must be taken to achieve these goals (Barni et al., 2014).

For the three types of value orientation (personal, central, and social), our results indicated that the addition of parenting styles, perceived in guardians to an explanatory model of values endorsed by the children that included values perceived in guardians, increased explanatory power of the model.These results suggested that the perception of parents' styles and values is determinant for the assimilation of values by the children.In this way, the explanatory power related to guardians' values is due to children's perception, followed by the acceptance of these values as their own.Consistent with the literature, these findings show that regardless of types of values that are prioritized by their guardians, the importance that chi dren attach to certain values tends to be more related to those values that are viewed as being endorsed by parents/guardians than to values truly adopted by them (Ciciolla et al., 2017;Soares et al., 2020).

The model proposed for values with social orientation presented the greatest explanatory power (ΔR² = 0.46).This result is in agreement with the literature, as it indicates that children tend to have greater acceptance of parental influence to social values as tradition, compared to values related to personal domain (Friedlmeier & Trommsdorff, 2011;Knafo & Schwartz, 2009).In contrast, the model proposed for central values presented the lowest explanatory power (ΔR² = 0.26).This result is consistent with the level of value congruence between children's values and values perceived in their guardians.In general, there is a higher correlation regarding personal a d social values when compared to central values, which may require greater cognitive development combined with parental practices more directly related to them, in contrast to personal and social values.

The results indicated the possibility that the role played by parenting styles in the value transmission is due to the type of style prioritized by the guardians and the ype perceived by children.Parents/guardians with parenting style perceived as more negative tend to be less effective in transmitting values compared to those with parenting style perceived as positive.

Parents with a negative parenting style develop relationships with their children based on poor attachment, which are associated with the development of antisocial behavior, low self-esteem, feelings of hostility, vulnerability, and aggressiveness in interpersonal relationships (Gomide, 2006(Gomide, /2011;;Nascimento & Leal, 2017).Parents with a positive parenting style develop closer family ties, demonstrating affectionate and empathetic parent-child relationship.This increases the child's chances of being able to generalize value models to other contexts, making the transmission of values more efficient (Prust & Gomide, 2007).Although the value priorities of children go through greater changes over time compared to their parents, there is a tendency to change in the same direction.This indicates a possible stability in the degree of value congruence within a family (Knafo & Schwartz, 2009).

The aims of this study were achieved.However, some limitations can be indicated.Our sample was a nonprobabilistic sample including only children and we used only self-report measures.This way, we perfo med an indirect assessment, considering children's perception about parenting styles and values of their guardians.Thus, it was not possible to compare the answers given by guardians and children.

These aspects should be addressed by future research.Future studies should also consider larger samples, including direct data collection with the guardians.In addition to data r ferring to parents' values and parenting styles, new variables could be included, for example, personality, parental self-efficacy, and aspects related to the influence of sociocultural context.

Literature provides relevant information related to mutual influence in parent-child relationship (Barni et al., 2013), thus this is another component to be investigated in future studies.The inclusion of these variables would increase the collected data, benefiting from crossing information between them, and the use of more robust statistical analyses.Specifically, related to our results, future research should investigate the understanding of central values in different stages of the child's development.

In summary, this study prov