Life skills transfer in athletes: internal and external antecedentsAbstract
The present study aimed to evaluate the associations between passion for sport, the motivational climate in sport, family support, and life skills transfer. The sample consisted of 261 athletes aged 12-24 years (17.7±3.46; 62.8% boys/men). Structural equation modeling suggested a positive association between harmonious passion, task-oriented motivational climate, and family support indicators with the life skills transfer dimensions. In contrast, a negative association between obsessive passion and ego-oriented motivational climate with the life skills transfer dimensions was observed. These results constitute relevant information for sports programs based on positive youth development, since the explanatory model suggests personal, contextual, and relational determinants could influence life skill transfer positively or negatively.
Keywords:
positive development; positive psychology; passion; family support; motivational climate
Resumo
O presente estudo teve como objetivo avaliar as associações entre a paixão pelo esporte, o clima motivacional no esporte, o apoio familiar e a transferência de habilidades de vida. A amostra consistiu em 261 atletas com idades entre 12 e 24 anos (17,7 ± 3,46; 62,8% meninos/homens). A modelagem de equações estruturais sugeriu uma associação positiva entre a paixão harmoniosa, o clima motivacional orientado para tarefas e os indicadores de apoio familiar com as dimensões de transferência de habilidades de vida. Em contraste, foi observada uma associação negativa entre a paixão obsessiva e o clima motivacional orientado para o ego com as dimensões de transferência de habilidades de vida. Esses resultados constituem informações relevantes para programas esportivos baseados no desenvolvimento positivo da juventude, já que o modelo explicativo sugere que determinantes pessoais, contextuais e relacionais podem influenciar a transferência de habilidades de vida positiva ou negativamente.
Palavras-chave:
desenvolvimento positivo; paixão; suporte familiar; clima motivacional
Resumen
El presente estudio tuvo como objetivo evaluar las asociaciones entre pasión por el deporte, el clima motivacional en el deporte, el apoyo familiar y la transferencia de habilidades de vida. La muestra consistió en 261 atletas de entre 12 y 24 años (17.7 ± 3.46; 62.8% hombres). La modelización de ecuaciones estructurales sugirió una asociación positiva entre la pasión armoniosa, el clima motivacional orientado a tareas y los indicadores de apoyo familiar con las dimensiones de transferencia de habilidades de vida. En contraste, se observó una asociación negativa entre la pasión obsesiva y el clima motivacional orientado al ego con las dimensiones de transferencia de habilidades de vida. Estos resultados constituyen información relevante para programas deportivos basados en el desarrollo positivo de la juventud, ya que el modelo explicativo propone que los determinantes personales, contextuales y relacionales podrían influir en la transferencia de habilidades de vida de manera positiva o negativa.
Palabras clave:
desarrollo positivo; psicología positiva; pasión; apoyo familiar; clima motivacional
The potential of sport to influence the positive development of young people has been highlighted in the literature (Camiré et al., 2021; Holt et al., 2020). When properly structured and implemented, sport programs can provide experiences that contribute to the development of social and emotional skills, known as life skills (Pierce et al., 2017; Weiss et al., 2014). Life skills have been defined as skills that can be developed in sport (e.g., time-management, perseverance) that have utility in other spheres of life (Gould & Carson, 2008, Pierce et al. 2017).
Some models with the intent to promote the development and transfer of life skills have been proposed in the literature (see Gould & Carson, 2008; Jacobs & Wright, 2018; Pierce et al., 2017). In these models, researchers have highlighted that some variables can influence the process of learning and transferring life skills beyond sport, namely individual characteristics as well as environment and relational aspects. Individual characteristics represent internal assets, such as personality traits and individual differences, that can influence the way young people engage in sport (Pierce et al., 2017). Conversely, environmental, and relational aspects represent external assets such as family, peers, and coaches, the influence of which can be characterized as direct (e.g., clear and consistent rules, promoting leadership, engaging in team building) or indirect (e.g., social norms, program success; Gould & Carson, 2008).
Although theoretical models have been proposed to guide research and sport programs aimed at developing life skills (Camiré, 2022), there is still little empirical research that has assessed the implications of personal, environmental, and relational variables antecedent to the transfer of life skills (Newman & Anderson-Butcher, 2021). Accordingly, the present research proposes the assessment of the impact of passion for sport, the motivational climate in sport, and family support (representing personal, environmental, and relational variables, respectively) on LST in young Brazilian athletes.
Passion for sport and life skills transfer
The transfer of life skills occurs when young people assign value to a previous learning experience (e.g., in sport) and then decide to apply the skills gained from this learning experience in another context (e.g., at school, at home, in the community) (Bean & Forneris, 2019). Thus, one is motivated to transfer skills and experience a broadening of perception, allowing for other ways to think about and apply what was initially internalized (Jacobs & Wright, 2018). In this sense, personal attributes such as passion are vital, acting as a facilitating variable in the transfer process.
Passion can be defined as an intense affinity with a particular activity, in which the individual dedicates energy and invests considerable time to put it into practice (Vallerand et al., 2003). Studies have highlighted passion for sport as an essential aspect of sustained involvement in sport (e.g., St-Cyr et al., 2021). The construct is understood as a dualistic phenomenon, and the relationship with the activity may assume a harmonious or obsessive character.
Harmonious passion (HP) develops when the practice of sport is experienced with a sense of free will. The activity is autonomously integrated into the athlete’s identity so that there are no conflicts with other activities in life. In contrast, obsessive passion (OP) results from a controlled internalization of the activity into the athlete’s identity (Vallerand & Verner-Filion, 2020). This internalization originates from intrapersonal and interpersonal pressure. Therefore, engagement in the activity is based on the uncontrollable need for social acceptance or self-esteem (Vallerand et al., 2003). Based on the literature, HP is associated with promoting higher levels of positive feelings (e.g., positive affect, pride, enthusiasm) during and after the practice of the activity and, consequently, generates higher levels of well-being (Salama-Younes, 2018; Vallerand, 2012; Zhang & Chen, 2019). On the other hand, OP tends to provide higher levels of negative feelings (e.g., shame, irritation, anguish) during practice; therefore, the subject experiences lower levels of happiness and well-being (Vallerand et al. al., 2003). Consequently, there are different outcomes experienced from HP or OP that can enhance or hinder LST.
Motivational climate and life skills transfer
The motivational climate in sport can be defined as the psychological environment promoted by coaches and other sports agents by providing instructions and feedback that motivate athletes to pursue sporting goals during training and competition (Ortega et al., 2018). This environment can be task-oriented or ego-oriented, depending on the behaviors and directions promoted (Bruin et al., 2009; Ortega et al., 2018). When a motivational climate is task-oriented, the focus of activities is geared towards learning and personal development, considering mistakes as part of the learning process, and encouraging interaction and cooperation. On the other hand, when a motivational climate is ego-oriented, known as a performance climate, comparisons and a focus on results are promoted; therefore, athletes tend to demonstrate an excess of competitive beliefs and behaviors (Duda, 1993).
The motivational climate, whether task-oriented or ego-oriented, influences the types of behaviors adopted by individuals during training and competition and consequently also affects their goal-oriented patterns in different contexts. Therefore, it is necessary to promote an environment that encourages positive behaviors and harmonious relationships, taking advantage of spontaneous as well as planned situations during training to teach athletes life skills and their transfer (Bean et al., 2016; Bean et al., 2018).
Family support and life skills transfer
Regarding relational aspects, family support is a fundamental variable for sport development, as cohesive family relationships enable autonomy and adaptation (Baptista et al., 2020). Baptista et al. (2020) suggested that family support is composed of three dimensions: affective-consistent, family adaptation, and family autonomy. The affective-consistent dimension concerns the verbal and non-verbal affectivity among family members, including closeness, interest, empathy, and maintenance of communication. Family adaptation, in turn, reflects positive feelings and attitudes towards family members. Finally, family autonomy characterizes the perception of freedom and trust and the possibility of being autonomous in these relationships (Baptista et al., 2020). Research indicates that the participation of parents in the sport environment is necessary to promote the positive development of young people since providing adequate support (emotional, financial, logistical support; maintaining good relationships with other agents in the sport context) tends to enhance sport results, foster positive psychosocial experiences, and facilitate LST (Gould & Carson, 2008; Harwood & Knight, 2015; Martin et al., 2014).
The present study
The variables that contribute to the development and transfer of life skills are numerous. Empirical research is needed to examine these contributions more closely (Newman & Anderson-Butcher, 2021). Consistent with this notion, Wright and Li (2009) highlighted the potential of quantitative research to test some of the assumptions that have justified the use of sport programs to promote the positive development of young people. To contribute to the literature in this area, the purpose of the present study was to investigate the relationship between the transfer of life skills, passion for sport, perception of the motivational climate, and family support. A further objective was to comprehend the role of these variables as determinants of the transfer of life skills.
From the available literature, hypotheses were formulated regarding the associations between internal and external assets and the process of LST. Accordingly, HP is expected to contribute positively to LST, while OP, in turn, is expected to be negatively associated to LST (Lafrenière et al., 2008; St-Cyr et al., 2021; Vallerand et al., 2003). Furthermore, it is hypothesized that a task-oriented climate will be positively associated with LST, while an ego-oriented climate will be negative associated with LST (Keegan et al., 2014; Mossman et al., 2021). Finally, it is hypothesized that family support indicators will be positively associated with LST, as encouragement, praise, and emotional support from the family environment can positively impact young people (Dorsch et al., 2019; Knight et al., 2016).
Method
Participants
The sample consisted of 261 participants aged between 12 and 24 years (M=17.7, SD= 3.46). A total of 62.8% identified as men, with 62.8% practicing collective type sports. Regarding the state in which they lived, the respondents were mostly from Minas Gerais (41.4%), São Paulo (34.5%), Paraíba (3.6%), Santa Catarina (3.6%), Rio de Janeiro (3.2%) and Pernambuco (2.8%) in Brazil. Regarding the level of education, 33.0% were in high school, 24.9% were in higher education, 20.7% were in elementary school, 13.0% had completed high school, and 8.4% had completed higher education. Among the participants, 75.1% practiced sport in a club, 10.0% in schools or universities, 3.8% in social projects, and 11.1% in other places, with 70.1% reporting having practiced sport for more than five years. It is noteworthy that the inclusion criterion for the current study was to be aged between 12 and 24 years and to engage in some form of sports or physical exercise for a minimum duration of six months.
Instruments
Sociodemographic questionnaire. Questions were asked to collect sociodemographic information (such as gender, age, education level, type of sport played, and length of practice). The questions were created to fulfill the objectives of the present study.
Life Skill Transfer Survey - LSTS. Initially developed in English (Weiss et al., 2014) and adapted to Brazilian Portuguese by Romano and Peixoto (2023), the instrument consists of 50 items that assess LST, which is divided into eight factors: Meeting and greeting (e.g., “I start a conversation with someone I just met.”), Managing emotions (e.g., “I have a positive attitude when faced with a challenge at school.”), Goal setting (e.g., “I set goals based on my own ability level in school.”), Resolving conflicts (e.g., “If my friend and I argue, I try to resolve our differences by talking them out.”), Making healthy choices (e.g., “I avoid unhealthy behaviors.”), Appreciating diversity (e.g., “I have learned many things from individuals of different cultures.”), Getting help from others (e.g., “I go to people who I can trust when I need help.”), and Helping others (e.g., “I am a positive role model for others to follow.”). Respondents answered the items using a 5-point scale ranging from 1 = really not true for me to 5 = really true for me. Cronbach’s alpha was used to estimate reliability, with the eight LSTS subscales achieving good alpha values (.75 - .91).
It is important to mention that the LSTS was initially developed to evaluate The First Tee Golf Program in the United States. However, in the Brazilian context, the questionnaire was adapted to the Portuguese language to be applied in different sports and programs. Thus, the items were adapted according to the sport and program to which the participants belonged. The respondents were instructed to consider what they had learned during their participation in the sport they were involved in. Therefore, although acknowledging that they had learned things from different situations in their lives, they were asked to focus on the life skills they learned during their participation in that specific sport.
Passion Scale (PS). Developed by Vallerand et al. (2003), the scale aims to assess the dimensions of passion, namely: Harmonious Passion (HP) (e.g., “This sport is in harmony with the other activities in my life.”) and Obsessive Passion (OP) (e.g., “I have almost an obsessive feeling for this sport.”), which have six items each. Participants respond to the items through a 7-point scale, which indicates the degree of agreement with the statements, ranging from 1= strongly disagree to 7= strongly agree. The instrument was culturally adapted to the Brazilian context by Peixoto et al. (2019) and the psychometric properties indicated the adequacy of the internal structure for the two-dimensional theory of the Passion Scale, as well as good levels of precision for both factors (Cronbach’s Alpha: HP=.81 and OP=.75). Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire (PMCSQ-2) - short version. The Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire (PMCSQ-2; Newton et al. 2000) aims to assess athletes’ perceptions of the motivational climate in the sporting context. The instrument consists of 33 items, with a 5-point scale ranging from 1= strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. The PMCSQ-2 is organized into two dimensions: Ego orientation (e.g., “On this team, the coach makes it clear who he or she thinks are the best players.”) and Task orientation (e.g., “On this team, the players help each other to get better and excel.”), with both dimensions presenting Cronbach’s alpha values of 0.87. The instrument was adapted to the Brazilian Portuguese language in a study conducted by Saldanha et al. (2022) that showed psychometric analysis supporting the original internal structure and good reliability indexes for both dimensions of the Brazilian version of PMCSQ-2. In the present study, a brief version of the PMCSQ-2 was employed. To this end, nine items from each factor, demonstrating higher factor loadings on their respective factors, were selected. The items selection process also considered the content coverage seen in the full version of the instrument as well as the equal representation of the specific theorical categories that compose the constructs: cooperative learning, effort, important role, intra-team rivalry, unequal recognition, and punishment for mistakes (Duda, 1993).
Child-Adolescent Perception of Family Support Inventory (Inventário de Percepção do Suporte Familiar Infantojuvenil IPSF-IJ) - reduced version. The inventory, developed by Baptista et al. (2020), aims to measure the perception of family support or assistance in children or adolescents. The IPSF-IJ is composed of three factors, namely: Affective-consistent (e.g., “There are rules about many situations in my family.”), Family adaptation (e.g., “In my family, there is competition among the members.”) and Family autonomy (e.g., “My family allows me to be the way I want to be.”). The questionnaire consists of 21 items using a 3-point scale ranging from 1 = almost never or never to 3 = almost always or always. According to the results obtained through confirmatory factor analysis, the methods indicated good validity evidence based on the internal structure and desirable reliability indicators (alphas above .77 and omegas above .80).
Procedures
Ethical aspects. This study was submitted to the Ethics Committee for Research with Human Subjects of the Universidade São Francisco, CAAE: 36509920.9.0000.5514. After approval, the link to the questionnaire (using the Google Forms tool) was made available on different social networks, as data collection took place virtually. For those aged 12-17 years, parents had to sign a consent form and participants needed to sign an assent form. Participants aged 18 years and over agreed to the consent terms to participate in the study. Subsequently, they completed the sociodemographic questionnaire, the Life Skills Transfer Survey (LSTS), the Passion Scale (PS), the Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire (PMCSQ-2 short version), and the Child-Adolescent Perception of Family Support Inventory (IPSF-IJ - short version), in that order. The data collection time was approximately 30 minutes.
Data analysis. Initially, the internal structures of the scales used in the study were evaluated through confirmatory factor analyzes (CFA), performed using Mplus 7.11 software (Muthén & Muthén, 2012). Considering the ordinal nature of items, the Weighted Least Squares Mean and Variance-adjusted (WLSMV) estimation methods were employed, and a polychoric correlation was used (Brown, 2015; Li, 2016). The model fit was evaluated using the indices recommended in the literature: degrees of freedom (df), chi-square (χ2), χ2/df, Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), Comparative Fit Index (CFI) and Tucker Lewis Index (TLI). The following reference values were used as parameters: CFI and TLI ≥.9, RMSEA ≤.08, and χ2/df ≤5 (Muthén & Muthén, 2012; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2019).
In sequence, to characterize the sample, descriptive statistical analyses were performed. Pearson’s correlation was used to estimate the association of the LSTS scores with the external variables used in this study (passion, motivational climate, and family support) and their directions (i.e., negative or positive) and degree of magnitude. Indicators were considered significant when p≤.05. The analysis was conducted using the Jamovi 1.1.9 software (Jamovi, 2020), and the magnitudes of the correlations were interpreted from the classification proposed by Cohen (1988), with -.09 to .09 described as null, .10 to .29 small, .30 to .49 medium and .50 to 1.0 large. The choice of a parametric correlation method was guided by assessing asymmetry and kurtosis values falling within the acceptable range of -2 to +2, indicating normal univariate distribution across all variables included in the study (George & Mallery, 2010).
The hypothetical model was evaluated through Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), using Path Analysis, since path analysis considers residual variables and interrelated correlations between endogenous and exogenous variables (Kline, 1998). Finally, the quality of the measurement model fit to the data was evaluated using the same thresholds used on the CFA.
Results
The results of the preliminary analyzes showed that there were no missing data in the database; thus, a CFA was conducted for each instrument independently, and the results suggested the adequacy of the measures used in the present study. For the Passion Scale, the fit indices were: χ2 = 163.778, df = 43, p < 0.001, CFI = 0.970, TLI = 0.954, RMSEA = 0.104 [90% CI = 0.087, 0.121], with factor loadings ranging from 0.451 to 0.928, and the variation between dimensions reaching 0.436. For the Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire, the fit indices were: χ2 = 289.356; df = 118, p < 0.001, CFI = 0.976, TLI = 0.969, RMSEA = 0.075 [90% CI = 0.064, 0.086], with factor loading ranging from 0.437 to 0.955, the variation between dimensions was -0.248. The fit indices for the Child-Adolescent Perception of Family Support Inventory were: χ2 = 242.397; df = 150, p < 0.001, CFI = 0.963, TLI = 0.948, RMSEA = 0.049 [90%CI = 0.037, 0.060], with factor loadings ranging from 0.30 to 0.951. Finally, the LSTS hierarchical model was tested, and the fit indicators were: 2582.741, df = 1167, RMSEA = 0.072 [C.I. = 0.068 0.065], CFI = 0.946, TLI = 0.943, with factor loadings equal to or greater than 0.423. These results indicate adequacy of the measures employed to assess the sample available in this research, and it suggests new validity evidence based on the internal structure of the PS, PMCSQ-Brief version, IPSF-IJ, and LSTS in the Brazilian context when applied to different sport programs (AERA et al., 2014).
Good reliability was shown for all factors comprising the PS (Cronbach’s α: HP = .860, OP = .834; McDonald’s ɷ: HP = .867, OP = .839), PMCSQ-Brief version (Cronbach’s α: Task = .939, Ego = .839; McDonald’s ɷ: Task = .940, Ego = .849), IPSF-IJ (Cronbach’s α: AC = .779, FAD = .801, FAU = .756; McDonald’s ɷ: AC = .800, FAD = .811, FAU = .765) and LSTS (Cronbach’s α ranging between .722 and .918, McDonald’s ɷ .779 and .919, see Table 1). These results corroborate the reliability of these instruments and their adequacy for being used in the present study (AERA et al., 2014).
Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics and the correlation matrix between LST, passion, motivational climate, and family support. Regarding LST, the Helping others factor presented the highest mean score (M=4.29, SD=0.59), while the Goal setting factor had the lowest mean score (M=3.61, SD=0.85). HP, in turn, showed a mean of 6.17 (SD=0.91) and OP a mean of 4.21 (SD=1.52). Regarding the perception of the motivational climate, the Task-oriented climate presented a mean score of 4.56 (SD=0.62) and the Ego-oriented climate a mean score of 2.36 (SD=0.79). Finally, considering the family support indicators, the highest mean was observed in the Family autonomy factor (M=1.58, SD=0.36), and the lowest mean score in the Family adaptation factor (M=0.41, SD=0.4).
The correlation matrix displays the relationships between the variables. Regarding the independent variables, HP was significantly and positively related to all the factors that make up the LSTS (r= .19 ~.33), while OP showed a positive relationship only with the factor of Making healthy choices (r= .15). The Task-oriented motivational climate showed positive correlations with the factors of Meeting and Greeting, Resolving conflicts, Appreciating diversity, Getting help from others, and Helping others (r= .14 ~.21). The indicator of consistent Affective family support correlated positively with all LSTS component factors (r= .15 ~.32), Family adaptation showed positive correlations with the factors Managing emotions, Setting goals, Resolving conflict, and Making healthy choices (r= .17 ~.24), and finally, the indicator Family autonomy correlated with Meeting and greeting, Managing emotions, and Making healthy choices (r= .15 ~.18).
In contrast, OP was negatively correlated with the factor Resolving conflict (r= -.14), while Ego-oriented motivational climate showed significant and negative correlations with Managing emotions, Resolving conflicts, Making healthy choices, Appreciating diversity, Getting help from others, and Helping others (r= -.23 ~-.13). The magnitudes of the correlations, positive and negative, ranged from small to medium.
An integrative model was tested through structural equation modeling, which showed that LSTS factors were considered endogenous variables, while Passion for Sport, Motivational Climate, and Family Support were considered exogenous variables. The model’s fit indices demonstrated adequacy to the data obtained (χ2/ df=7112.647(4860), RMSEA=.042 [90%CI (.04-.044)], CFI=.912 and TLI=.909). Concerning the LSTS, factor loadings ranged from .41 to .93. For Passion for Sport, factor loadings ranged from .46 to .91. For Motivational Climate, factor loadings ranged from .60 to .94. For Family Support, factor loadings ranged from .30 to .88. Table 2 presents the results of the path analysis, that is, the beta statistics estimated through the modeling.
As presented in Table 2, HP showed a positive association with the LSTS factors Meeting and greeting, Managing emotions, Goal setting, Resolving conflicts, Making healthy choices, Appreciating diversity (β=.489), Getting help from others and Helping others. Regarding the motivational climate, the intensity of the associations varied between small and medium. The Task-oriented climate showed positive associations with the factors Meeting and greeting, Managing emotions, Resolving conflicts, Making healthy choices, Appreciating diversity, Getting help from others and Helping others. Affective-consistent family support had positive associations with Managing emotions, Goal setting, and Making healthy choices, while Family autonomy had positive associations with Meeting and greeting. Family adaptation had a negative association with Managing emotions and Resolving conflicts.
OP had negative associations with Meeting and Greeting, Managing emotions, Resolving conflicts, Appreciating diversity, Getting help from others, and Helping others. Ego-oriented motivational climate had negative associations with Managing emotions, Resolving conflicts, Making healthy choices, Getting help from others, and Helping others. The model was able to explain 29.7% of the variance for Meeting and greeting, 31.3% for Managing emotions, 21.0% for Goal setting, 35.9% for Resolving conflicts, 40.5% for Making healthy choices, 39.2% for Appreciating diversity, 30.8% for Getting help from others, and 33.1% for Helping others.
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to examine associations between passion for sport, motivational climate in sport, and family support variables in the LST process in young Brazilian athletes. To this end, structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed. The general results confirm the initial hypotheses, indicating the contributions of personal, environmental, and relational aspects in helping explain LST.
The SEM results showed that the personal aspect, represented by passion, moderately affected the variance of the LSTS factors. Specifically, HP had a positive association with all LSTS factors. This suggests that an individual’s harmonious relationship with sport, based on flexible internalization, provides support for the transfer of the skills learned in this environment (Vallerand, 2012). Accordingly, it is possible to infer that HP enables positive social experiences from harmonious interactions with the environment (Chichekian & Vallerand, 2018; Vallerand et al., 2003; Vallerand, 2012). In contrast, OP had a small and moderate negative association with the LST variables. Individuals with high levels of OP tend to feel an uncontrollable desire to practice the sport they have an affinity with, which can generate negative consequences at the behavioral, cognitive, and affective levels (Vallerand et al., 2003). The sports activity, in this case, is rigidly integrated into the subject’s identity, in which they feel internally and externally pressured to continue the practice, even to the detriment of other daily activities. This culminates in a prejudicial engagement, which places the subject in a defensive position to the demands experienced (Chichekian & Vallerand, 2018; Vallerand et al., 2003). These less adaptive behaviors arise from this controlled involvement, which can hinder the LST process because individuals do not establish and maintain positive relationships, find it challenging to manage their emotions and thoughts, avoid seeking help from others, and do not make themselves available to help others (St-Cyr et al., 2021, Weiss et al., 2014).
From a practical point of view, results suggest that it may be important for sport coaches and managers to make efforts to stimulate children and younger adolescents to experience different sports, in order to avoid instances of OP with a single sport (Côté et al., 2007). In addition, it is important that youth’s sport experiences be designed to offer fair opportunities to participate in the different expressions of sport, such as practices and competitions, potentializing the benefits of these activities (Torres & López-Frías, 2023). To reduce potential instances of OP, activities other than sports, such as arts, science, and other cultural activities, should also be encouraged for young people who are involved in specialized sport training (intense focus on one sport). These strategies can be relevant because they may stimulate young people to get involved in different activities perceived as pleasurable, which will enable the development of a repertoire of activities of interest that is not restricted to sports (Richard et al., 2023). It is worth mentioning that the autonomy to stay or not in a specific sport must be supported, given that when faced with other activities of interest, other passions can be discovered or nurtured (Richard et al., 2023; Vallerand, 2012).
Concerning the environmental aspects, the Task-oriented motivational climate had a small and moderate positive association with LST, particularly the Meeting and greeting, Managing emotions, Resolving conflicts, Making healthy choices, Appreciating diversity, Getting help from others, and Helping others. These results are sensible considering that a task-oriented motivational climate is related to behaviors such as harmonious relationships, respect, and empathy whereby individuals focus on personal improvement and considers the group’s relevance, striving to master the task and contribute to others (Bruin et al., 2009; Duda, 1993).
The Ego-oriented motivational climate, on the other hand, showed a small and negative association with Managing emotions, Resolving conflicts, Making healthy choices, Getting help from others, and Helping others. Such results may have occurred because an ego-oriented motivational climate is typically associated with behaviors focusing on normative assessments; therefore, it makes individuals more inclined to seek only to beat others. In this sense, the motivational climate, whether task-oriented or ego-oriented, influences the types of behaviors adopted by individuals during training and competition and, consequently, also affects their goal-oriented pattern for LST in different contexts (Bruin et al., 2009).
The results show that having a task-oriented motivational climate in sport contributes to life skill transfer. These results are consistent with the model proposed by Bean et al. (2018), that describes the Implicit/Explicit Continuum of Life Skills Development and Transfer. This continuum has six levels, with the first two levels representing implicit life skills development and transfer (i.e., structuring the sports context and facilitating a positive climate). The top four levels represent explicit life skills development and transfer through which coaches can facilitate explicit life skills teaching (i.e., discussing life skills, practicing life skills, discussing transfer, practicing transfer) using a wide range of strategies allowing athletes to share experiences that contribute to their development as well as that of others. Thus, the results of the present study are consistent with Torres and López-Frías (2023) statement that: “reducing the emphasis on performance-oriented goals in favor of development-centered ones is critical in promoting non-hierarchical and horizontal relationships” (p. 11). As suggested by Hodge et al. (2013), when operating in a task-oriented environment, young athletes tend to have their basic psychological needs (i.e., autonomy, competence, and relatedness) satisfied, which can enhance the development of life skills and their transfer to other contexts. Moving forward, studies should also explore the degree of intentionality demonstrated by coaches in fostering social transformation through the development of critical consciousness and the promotion of social justice in sport (see Camiré, 2022).
The relational aspect, represented by the family support indicators (Affective-consistent, Family autonomy, and Family adaptation), showed a positive association with LST, with magnitudes between small and moderate, more specifically for Meeting and greeting, Managing emotions, Goal setting, Resolving conflicts, and Making healthy choices. These results support the central role of the family in supporting youth’s involvement in sport through exposure to and reinforcement of certain behaviors (Granados et al., 2009). When young people can rely on expressions of affection (verbal and non-verbal) and experience welcoming and empathetic communication with their parents, they tend to feel more secure in managing their own emotions, establishing and pursuing goals, and are more likely to make healthy choices.
These results corroborate research advocating for the active participation of family members in programs aimed at facilitating the positive development of youth through sport (Christofferson & Strand, 2016; Hodge et al., 2013). Through strategic and calculated involvement, parents can accentuate the positive experiences of youth in the sporting context. In this sense, Silva and Fleith (2010) indicated that family support leads to better performance, greater commitment to the activity, and more satisfaction with the practice of sports. Christofferson and Strand (2016) proposed an education program for parents to encourage positive experiences in young athletes that touches on themes similar to those examined in the present study, such as affective communication, praising success, providing support and encouragement in the face of mistakes, and recognizing and controlling emotions.
The present study aligns with the LST literature indicating how parents can facilitate or hinder life skills development and transfer, depending on how they support their children’s practice of sport. In future LST research, parents must continue to be regarded as key agents exposing youth to a variety of social interactions and experiences that can directly/indirectly influence the development and transfer of life skills (Bean et al., 2018; Pierce et al., 2017). Results of this study are consistent with Torres and López-Frías (2023) who discussed the relevance of parental autonomous support for young athletes, which nurtures the construction of trusting relationships through the acknowledgment of athletes’ preferences, even when those preferences differ from that of parents. In this sense, parental autonomous support contributes to the establishment of horizontal relationships fostering a balance of power whereby parents and children feel mutually valued and respected. In relation to LST, egalitarian parent-child relationships foster feelings of psychological safety in youth, enabling them to feel more confident in taking risks and making attempts at transferring their life skills learned in sports to other life domains (e.g., at school, at work, in the community).
Conclusion
The present study contributes to the literature by examining associations between individual, environmental, and relational aspects (i.e., internal, and external assets) and LST. Overall, the results suggest the relevance of HP, a task-oriented motivational climate, and adequate family support in promoting LST. On the other hand, OP and an ego-oriented motivational climate appear to be detrimental to LST. These results have important practical implications, enabling those with a vested interest in sport to reflect on how sports programs should optimally structure their activities to facilitate LST. Specifically, the results suggest how a combination of internal and external assets play crucial roles in enabling young people to successfully participate in sport and apply the lessons they have learned in sport in other aspects of their lives (Gould & Carson, 2008; Hodge et al., 2013; Jacobs & Wright, 2018; Pierce et al., 2017). Moving forward, sport programs should seek ways to promote harmonious relationships with sport through strategies that promote group work and actively facilitate family participation. To support LST, youth, families, and coaches must work together and mutually strive to maximize the potential for positive development.
Some limitations of this research should be highlighted. First, the study used a relatively small and convenient sample of participants, mostly from the Southeast region of Brazil, with an age range that covers two different stages of human development (i.e., adolescence and young adulthood). Therefore, it is suggested that future efforts examining LST in relation to internal/external assets should expand the sample in terms of size, age range (i.e., younger children), and geography, which will enable the assessment of differences in relation to the level and type of skills transferred due to differences in the stage of development. Second, demographic data on race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status were not collected, which would have been useful as covariates to explore their influence on LST in a Brazilian context known to be multicultural and harboring social inequalities. Third, inferences are limited by the cross-sectional research design used to test the associations between the variables of interest. Therefore, the results cannot be treated as causal. Future studies should be carried out using longitudinal designs to assess the replicability of these results and better comprehend how these variables interact over time.
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Publication Dates
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Publication in this collection
24 Mar 2025 -
Date of issue
2025
History
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Received
18 Aug 2023 -
Reviewed
15 Apr 2024 -
Accepted
26 July 2024
