Abstracts
Ventilation volume (<img src="http:/img/fbpe/rbbio/v60n2/a08vg.gif" alt="a08vg.gif (265 bytes)" align="absmiddle"> – mlH2O.min–1 ), respiratory frequency (fR – breaths.min–1) and tidal volume (V T – mlH2O.breath–1 ) were measured in a group of Piaractus mesopotamicus (650.4 ± 204.7 g; n = 10) during normoxia and in response to graded hypoxia. The fR was maintained constant, around 100 breaths.min–1, from normoxia until the O2 tension of the inspired water (PiO2) of 53 mmHg, below which it increased progressively, reaching maximum values (157.6 ± 6.3 breaths.min–1) at 10 mmHg. The V T rose from 1.8 ± 0.1 to 6.0 ± 0.5 and 5.7 ± 0.4 mlH2O. breath–1 in the PiO2 of 16 and 10 mmHg, respectively. The <img src="http:/img/fbpe/rbbio/v60n2/a08vg.gif" alt="a08vg.gif (265 bytes)" align="absmiddle"> increased from 169.3 11.0 (normoxia) to 940.1 ± 85.6 mlH2O. min–1 at the PiO2 of 16 mmHg, below which it also tended to decrease. A second group of fish (29 to 1510.0 g, n = 34) was used for the evaluation of allometric relationships concerning ventilation and dimensions of the buccal and opercular cavities. At maximum <img src="http:/img/fbpe/rbbio/v60n2/a08vg.gif" alt="a08vg.gif (265 bytes)" align="absmiddle">, the V T corresponded to 93.2 ± 2.4% of the buccal volume and 94.9 2.3% of the opercular volume, suggesting that the <img src="http:/img/fbpe/rbbio/v60n2/a08vg.gif" alt="a08vg.gif (265 bytes)" align="absmiddle"> of P. mesopotamicus is limited by the volumes of buccal and opercular cavities in severe hypoxia.
hypoxia; normoxia; ventilatory parameters; buccal and opercular volumes; Piaractus mesopotamicus
Em um grupo de Piaractus mesopotamicus (Wt = 650,4 ± 204,7 g, n = 10) foram determinados a ventilação branquial (<img src="http:/img/fbpe/rbbio/v60n2/a08vg.gif" alt="a08vg.gif (265 bytes)" align="absmiddle"> – mlH2O. min–1), a freqüência respiratória (fR – ciclos respiratórios. min–1) e o volume ventilatório (V T – mlH2O. ciclo respiratório–1) em normóxia e em resposta à hipóxia gradual. A fR foi mantida constante, em torno de 100 ciclos respiratórios. min–1, de normóxia até a tensão de O2 da água inspirada (PiO2) de 53 mmHg, abaixo da qual aumentou progressivamente, atingindo seus valores máximos (157,6 ± 6,3 ciclos respiratórios. min–1) em 10 mmHg. O V T aumentou de 1,8 ± 0,1 para 6,0 ± 0,5 e 5,7 ± 0,4 mlH2O. ciclo respiratório–1 nas PiO2 de 16 e 10 mmHg, respectivamente. A <img src="http:/img/fbpe/rbbio/v60n2/a08vg.gif" alt="a08vg.gif (265 bytes)" align="absmiddle"> aumentou de 169,3 ± 11,0 (normóxia) para 940,1 ± 85,6 mlH2O. min–1 na PiO2 de 16 mmHg, abaixo da qual também tendeu a diminuir. Um segundo grupo de peixes (29 to 1510,0 g, n = 34) foi utilizado para a avaliação das relações alométricas entre a ventilação e as dimensões das cavidades bucal e operculares. Na <img src="http:/img/fbpe/rbbio/v60n2/a08vg.gif" alt="a08vg.gif (265 bytes)" align="absmiddle"> máxima, o V T correspondeu a 93,2 ± 2,4% do volume bucal e 94,9 ± 2,3% de volume opercular, sugerindo que a <img src="http:/img/fbpe/rbbio/v60n2/a08vg.gif" alt="a08vg.gif (265 bytes)" align="absmiddle"> de P. mesopotamicus é limitada pelos volumes dessas cavidades durante hipóxia severa.
hipóxia; normóxia; parâmetros ventilatórios; volumes bucal e operculares; Piaractus mesopotamicus
Ventilatory flow relative to intrabuccal and intraopercular volumes in the serrasalmid fish Piaractus mesopotamicus during normoxia and exposed to graded hypoxia
KALININ, A. L.,1 SEVERI, W.,2 GUERRA, C. D. R.,3 COSTA, M. J.1 and RANTIN, F. T.1
1Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, CEP 13565-905, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
2Departamento de Pesca, Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco, CEP 52171-900, Recife, PE, Brazil
3Departamento de Ciencias Biologicas, Universidad Santa Maria La Antigua, Apartado Postal 6-1696, Estafeta El Dorado, Panama 6, Panama
Correspondence to: Francisco Tadeu Rantin, Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, Rodovia Washington Luiz, km 235, C.P. 676, CEP 13565-905, São Carlos, SP, Brazil, email: ftrantin@power.ufscar.br
Received October 21, 1998 Accepted August 25, 1999 Distributed May 31, 2000
(With 3 figures)
ABSTRACT
Ventilation volume ( mlH2O.min1 ), respiratory frequency (fR breaths.min1) and tidal volume (VT mlH2O.breath1 ) were measured in a group of Piaractus mesopotamicus (650.4 ± 204.7 g; n = 10) during normoxia and in response to graded hypoxia. The fR was maintained constant, around 100 breaths.min1, from normoxia until the O2 tension of the inspired water (PiO2) of 53 mmHg, below which it increased progressively, reaching maximum values (157.6 ± 6.3 breaths.min1) at 10 mmHg. The VT rose from 1.8 ± 0.1 to 6.0 ± 0.5 and 5.7 ± 0.4 mlH2O. breath1 in the PiO2 of 16 and 10 mmHg, respectively. The increased from 169.3 11.0 (normoxia) to 940.1 ± 85.6 mlH2O . min1 at the PiO2 of 16 mmHg, below which it also tended to decrease. A second group of fish (29 to 1510.0 g, n = 34) was used for the evaluation of allometric relationships concerning ventilation and dimensions of the buccal and opercular cavities. At maximum , the VT corresponded to 93.2 ± 2.4% of the buccal volume and 94.9 2.3% of the opercular volume, suggesting that the of P. mesopotamicus is limited by the volumes of buccal and opercular cavities in severe hypoxia.
Key words: hypoxia, normoxia, ventilatory parameters, buccal and opercular volumes, Piaractus mesopotamicus.
RESUMO
Fluxo ventilatório relativo aos volumes intrabucal e intraoperculares no serrasalmídeo Piaractus mesopotamicus durante a exposição à normóxia e à hipóxia gradual
Em um grupo de Piaractus mesopotamicus (Wt = 650,4 ± 204,7 g, n = 10) foram determinados a ventilação branquial ( mlH2O . min1), a freqüência respiratória (fR ciclos respiratórios . min1) e o volume ventilatório (VT mlH2O . ciclo respiratório1) em normóxia e em resposta à hipóxia gradual. A fR foi mantida constante, em torno de 100 ciclos respiratórios . min1, de normóxia até a tensão de O2 da água inspirada (PiO2) de 53 mmHg, abaixo da qual aumentou progressivamente, atingindo seus valores máximos (157,6 ± 6,3 ciclos respiratórios . min1) em 10 mmHg. O VT aumentou de 1,8 ± 0,1 para 6,0 ± 0,5 e 5,7 ± 0,4 mlH2O. ciclo respiratório1 nas PiO2 de 16 e 10 mmHg, respectivamente. A aumentou de 169,3 ± 11,0 (normóxia) para 940,1 ± 85,6 mlH2O . min1 na PiO2 de 16 mmHg, abaixo da qual também tendeu a diminuir. Um segundo grupo de peixes (29 to 1510,0 g, n = 34) foi utilizado para a avaliação das relações alométricas entre a ventilação e as dimensões das cavidades bucal e operculares. Na máxima, o VT correspondeu a 93,2 ± 2,4% do volume bucal e 94,9 ± 2,3% de volume opercular, sugerindo que a de P. mesopotamicus é limitada pelos volumes dessas cavidades durante hipóxia severa.
Palavras-chave: hipóxia, normóxia, parâmetros ventilatórios, volumes bucal e operculares, Piaractus mesopotamicus.
INTRODUCTION
Respiratory homeostasis in teleosts depends on an oxygen-oriented control of gill ventilation which normally increases during environmental hypoxia (Holeton & Randall, 1967; Hughes & Saunders, 1970; Lomholt & Johansen, 1979; Steffensen et al., 1982; Rantin & Johansen, 1984; Kalinin et al., 1996). This response is nearly immediate, reflecting the action of O2 chemoreceptors (Satchell, 1991; Milsom, 1993). The exact sites of these receptors have been considerably discussed and the early literature is not entirely consistent. Branchial receptors were well documented by Milsom & Brill (1986) and these appear to screen both water and arterial blood.
In many fish species the ventilatory responses to hypoxia are considerable and maintain the arterial PO2 relatively constant during moderate hypoxia (for a review see Milsom, 1993). To attenuate the effects of hypoxia, different species adopt distinct strategies to increase gill ventilation by enhancing tidal volume and/or respiratory frequency.
The relationship between differential pressure of the ventilatory apparatus and the water volume pumped across the gills is determined by the morphology of buccal and opercular chambers and the performance of the ventilatory muscles (Ballintijn, 1969a,b, 1972). These morphological features are species-specific, but may change with development in the individual. Moreover, short term adaptations to the environment may modify the morphology of the chambers (Hughes & Saunders, 1970).
The respiratory physiology in relation to the environment of the teleost fish depends on the mechanisms described above. Rantin et al. (1992) and Kalinin et al. (1996) studied the respiratory responses to hypoxia in two ecologically distinct water-breathing erythryinids, Hoplias malabaricus, typical of stagnant oxygen poor environments of tropical and sub-tropical regions of South America, and Hoplias lacerdae, that inhabits well-oxygenated rivers of central and southern regions of Brazil.
Both species substantially increased ventilation in response to hypoxia. As a difference, H. malabaricus mainly increased tidal volume whereas respiratory frequency changed little. Conversely, H. lacerdae predominantly increased ventilation by means of respiratory frequency.
In this context, we studied the serrasalmid fish Piaractus mesopotamicus (Holmberg), known in Brazil as pacu, a migratory species distributed in South America from the Amazon, in the north, to the Paraná-Paraguay basin, in the south (Severi, 1991). This species is an important food fish and highly suitable for aquaculture (Saint-Paul, 1986). Within the Central Brazilian Pantanal, pacu also occurs in shallow waters and in floodplain lakes that are often subjected to temporary hypoxia or even anoxia.
The aim of this study was to assess ventilation volume ( mlH2O . min1), respiratory frequency (fR breaths . min1) and tidal volume (VT mlH2O . breath1) of Piaractus mesopotamicus. In addition, tidal volume was evaluated in relation to the intraopercular and intrabuccal volumes, which allows quantification of the morphological limits to increase of tidal volume.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Specimens of Piaractus mesopotamicus (n = 10; Wt = 650.4 ± 204.7 g, mean SE) were obtained from the Center of Research in Tropical Fish (CEPTA/IBAMA) Pirassununga, SP, Brazil. Fish were acclimated to 25oC in 250-l holding tanks with continuous flow of dechlorinated and well-aerated water (oxygen water tension PwO2 > 135 mmHg) for at least 3 weeks prior to experimentation. The fish were fed with commercial food pellets ad libitum but were fasted for two days prior to experimentation.
Ventilation volume () was measured applying the method of Rantin et al. (1992). Fish were housed in a flow-through respirometer while inlet and outlet water PO2 (PinO2, PoutO2, respectively) were continuously recorded. PE-catheters were inserted into the roof of the mouth as well as through both opercular cleithra to perform continuous measurements of inspired (PiO2) and expired (PeO2) water O2 tensions. The was calculated according to the equation:
where represents the flow through the respirometer. All water tensions (PinO2, PoutO2, PiO2 and PeO2) were measured simultaneously by siphoning the water through the catheters to O2 electrodes (FAC 001-O2) that were housed in temperature-controlled cuvettes and connected to oxygen analyzers (FAC-204A , FAC São Carlos, SP, Brazil).
Respiratory frequency (fR) was recorded connecting the buccal catheter to a pressure transducer (Spectramed P10EZ) that was coupled to a LP-02 amplifier. The resulting signals were displayed on a Linseis 7065 recorder. Ventilatory tidal volume (VT) was calculated by dividing by fR.
After surgery the fish were placed into the experimental chamber to recover for 12 hours or more in well-aerated water (PO2 > 130 mmHg) at 25oC. Subsequently, PinO2 was stepwise lowered from the normoxic value (140 mmHg) to 100, 70, 50, 40, 30, 20 and 10 mmHg by bubbling the water with N2 or compressed air at controlled rates. Each tension was maintained for a 40 min. period, and the measurements were taken over the last 10 min.
The buccal and opercular volumes were determined according to the method of Kalinin (1996). The buccal and opercular cavities of anaesthetized fish (benzocaine 0.1%) were completely filled with an alginate (JelPrint Dentsply Ind. Com. Ltd. Brazil). After hardening, a precision eletronic scale (Micronal B-360) was used to weight the casts. The corresponding volumes were derived from a calibration curve of volume (ml) versus weight (g). The morphometric characteristics of buccal (VBuc) and opercular (VOp) volumes were plotted against total lenght (Lt cm) and compared to the plots of weight (Wt g) versus Lt for 34 specimens of P. mesopotamicus (29 to 1,510 g).
Statistical analyses
One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Bartlett's test for homogeneity of variances and Tukey-Kramer multiple comparisons test were employed to evaluate the data. Additionally, the Mann-Whitney test was employed to compare tidal volume in percentage of buccal and opercular volumes.
RESULTS
Changes in , fR, and VT of P. mesopotamicus during progressive hypoxia are presented in Fig. 1 (upper, middle and lower panel, respectively). The increased by about 5.6-fold with the reduction of PiO2 from normoxia to 16 mmHg. This was accomplished by a 3.3-fold increase in VT and a 1.6-fold increase in fR. The fR increased progressively until the PiO2 of 10 mmHg was reached, while the and VT tended to decrease below 16 mmHg.
The Fig. 2 compiles the data for the intrabuccal and intraopercular volumes in relation to body length. This figure also include the length-weight relationships. Combining the data for tidal volume (Fig. 1) and the morphometric information (Fig. 2) it becomes possible to express ventilatory responses in terms of percentage of the maximum volume possible (Fig. 3). When gill ventilation reached a maximum, VT corresponded to 93.2 ± 2.4% of the buccal volume and 94.9 ± 2.3% of opercular volume.
DISCUSSION
The results obtained in the present study are in agreement with those reported by Kalinin et al. (1996) to the erythrinid H. malabaricus, which maintained a larger VT whereas fR changed little. The responses of P. mesopotamicus and H. malabaricus seems advantageous in terms of energy expenditure, assuming that a constant velocity of muscular contraction is energy saving, whereas a higher frequency of contraction occurs on the cost of work against a high internal viscosity of the muscle and of the water (Rantin et al., 1992).
Hughes & Saunders (1970) and Smith & Jones (1982) reported that trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) mainly increases ventilation by adjustments of VT. In trout only the highest levels of correlate with any substantial elevation of fR. The relative importance of these two components is species-dependent. As an example, frequency adjustments play a larger role in carp, Cyprinus carpio (Glass et al., 1990). In any event, the studies indicate that ventilatory responses in fish cannot be evaluated without some measurement of tidal volume.
Previous studies (Rantin et al., 1998) have determined the critical oxygen tension (PcO2) for P. mesopotamicus as 34 mmHg, a high value compared with those presented by typical hypoxia-tolerant tropical teleost. It is important to emphasize that, when subjected to environmental hypoxic conditions, this species become dependent on aquatic surface respiration (ASR), when the fish rise to the surface to continue branchial respiration by positioning their mouths to skim the air/water interface which is richer in oxygen due to diffusion from the atmosphere (Saint-Paul & Bernardino, 1988). This behavior was also observed in experimental conditions by Rantin et al. (1998). These authors observed that the performance of ASR in P. mesopotamicus occurs just below the PcO2 when fish was allowed to access the water surface, compensating the high PcO2 value. In the present study, the highest values of , fR and VT occurred below the PcO2 and the inability to increase these parameters in the more hypoxic tensions coincided with the increased time spent in ASR recorded by Rantin et al. (1998).
An evaluation of the ventilatory capacity can be obtained by comparing the tidal volume to the morphometric data for the ventilatory apparatus. The values obtained in the present study show that the maximum responses to hypoxia correlate with VT that approach the upper limit set by the morphology of the opercular chamber and this probably explains the lack of any increase in VT below 16 mmHg. The same pattern of response was described by Kalinin et al. (1996) for H. lacerdae.
This method for expressing ventilatory responses adds information on the species-specific conditions for responding to hypoxia and on the adaptation of the species to environments that may be subjected to temporary or long-terms depletion of dissolved O2. Moreover, the method might explain some responses such as transitions to an increase of respiratory frequency during severe hypoxia.
Acknowledgments This project was supported by FAPESP (Proc. 95/4654-5) and CNPq (Proc. 300641/86-9 and 400210/94-0). Fellowships were provided to C. D. R. Guerra by CAPES and American States Organization (Proc. 22808-1-PN) and to M. J. Costa by CAPES. Specimens of pacu were kindly provided by CEPTA/IBAMA, Pirassununga, SP, Brazil. We acknowledge skillful technical assistance from the biologist J. R. Sanches and Mr. N. S. A. Matos.
REFERENCES
BALLINTIJN, C. M., 1969a, Movement pattern and efficiency of the respiratory pump of the carp (Cyprinus carpio L.). J. Exp. Biol., 50: 593-613.
BALLINTIJN, C. M., 1969b, Muscle co-ordination of the respiratory pump of the carp (Cyprinus carpio L.). J. Exp. Biol., 50: 569-591.
BALLINTIJN, C. M., 1972, Efficiency, mechanics and motor control of fish respiration. Respir. Physiol., 14: 125-141.
GLASS, M. L., ANDERSEN, N. A., KRUHØFFER, M., WILLIAMS, E. M. & HEISLER, N., 1990, Combined effects of environmental PO2 and temperature on ventilation and blood gases in the carp (Cyprinus carpio L.). J. Exp. Biol., 148: 1-17.
HOLETON, G. F. & RANDALL, D. J., 1967, The effect of hypoxia upon the partial pressure of gases in the blood and water efferent to the gills of rainbow trout. J. Exp. Biol., 46: 317-327.
HUGHES, G. M. & SAUNDERS, R. L., 1970, Responses of he respiratory pumps to hypoxia in the rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). J. Exp. Biol., 53: 529-545.
KALININ, A. L., 1996, Função respiratória de tilápia do Nilo, Oreochromis niloticus, em diferentes condições de O2 ambiental: Tomada de O2 branquial e cutânea, medidas diretas e determinações indiretas dos parâmetros ventilatórios. PhD Thesis, Federal University of São Carlos, SP, Brazil.
KALININ, A. L., RANTIN, F. T., FERNANDES, M. N. & GLASS, M. L., 1996, Ventilatory flow relative to intrabucal and intraopercular volumes in two ecologically distinct erythrinids (Hoplias malabaricus and Hoplias lacerdae) exposed to normoxia and graded hypoxia. Cap. 16, pp. 191-202. In: A. L. Val, V. M. F. Almeida-Val & D. J. Randall (eds.), Physiology and Biochemistry of Fishes of the Amazon. Manaus, Editora do INPA, 402p.
LOMHOLT, J. P. & JOHANSEN, K., 1979, Hypoxia acclimation in carp. How it affects O2 uptake, ventilation and O2 extraction from the water. Physiol. Zool., 52: 38-49.
MILSOM, W. K., 1993, Afferent inputs regulating ventilation in vertebrates. In: J. E. P. W. Bicudo (ed.), The vertebrate gas transport cascade. Adaptations and mode of life, pp. 94-105. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Florida.
MILSOM, W. K. & BRILL, R. W., 1986, Oxygen sensitive afferent information arising from the first gill arch of yellowfin tuna. Respir. Physiol., 66: 193-203.
RANTIN, F. T. & JOHANSEN, K., 1984, Responses of the teleost Hoplias malabaricus to hypoxia. Env. Biol. Fish., 11: 221-228.
RANTIN, F. T., KALININ, A. L., GLASS, M. L. & FERNANDES, M. N., 1992, Respiratory responses to hypoxia in relation to mode of life of two erythrinid species (Hoplias malabaricus and Hoplias lacerdae). J. Fish. Biol., 41: 805-812.
RANTIN, F. T., GUERRA, C. D. R., KALININ, A. L. & GLASS, M. L., 1998, The influence of aquatic surface respirtion (ASR) on cardio-respiratory function of the serrasalmid fish Piaractus mesopotamicus. Comp. Biochem. Physiol., 119: 991-997.
SAINT-PAUL, U., 1986, Potential for aquaculture of South American freshwater fishes: a review. Aquaculture, 54: 205-240.
SAINT-PAUL, U. & BERNARDINO, G., 1988, Behavioral and ecomorphological responses of the neotropical pacu (P. mesopotamicus Teleostei, Serrasalmidae) to oxygen-deficient waters. Exp. Biol., 48: 19-26.
SATCHELL, G. H., 1991, Physiology and form of fish circulation. Cambridge University Press, New York.
SEVERI, W., 1991, Aspectos morfométricos e estruturais das brânquias de pacu (P. mesopotamicus Holmberg, 1887, Osteichthyes, Serrasalmidae). M.Sc. Thesis, Federal University of São Carlos, SP, Brazil.
SMITH, F. M. & JONES, D. R., 1982, The effect of changes in blood oxygen carrying capacity on ventilation volume in the rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). J. Exp. Biol., 97: 325-334.
STEFFENSEN, J. F., LOMHOLT, J. P. & JOHANSEN, K., 1982, Gill ventilation and O2 extraction during graded hypoxia in two ecologically distinct species of flatfish, the flounder (Platichtys flesus) and the plaice (Pleuronectes platessa). Env. Biol. Fish., 7: 157-163.
- BALLINTIJN, C. M., 1969b, Muscle co-ordination of the respiratory pump of the carp (Cyprinus carpio L.). J. Exp. Biol., 50: 569-591.
- BALLINTIJN, C. M., 1972, Efficiency, mechanics and motor control of fish respiration. Respir. Physiol., 14: 125-141.
- GLASS, M. L., ANDERSEN, N. A., KRUHØFFER, M., WILLIAMS, E. M. & HEISLER, N., 1990, Combined effects of environmental PO2 and temperature on ventilation and blood gases in the carp (Cyprinus carpio L.). J. Exp. Biol, 148: 1-17.
- HOLETON, G. F. & RANDALL, D. J., 1967, The effect of hypoxia upon the partial pressure of gases in the blood and water efferent to the gills of rainbow trout. J. Exp. Biol., 46: 317-327.
- HUGHES, G. M. & SAUNDERS, R. L., 1970, Responses of he respiratory pumps to hypoxia in the rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). J. Exp. Biol., 53: 529-545.
- KALININ, A. L., 1996, Função respiratória de tilápia do Nilo, Oreochromis niloticus, em diferentes condições de O2 ambiental: Tomada de O2 branquial e cutânea, medidas diretas e determinações indiretas dos parâmetros ventilatórios PhD Thesis, Federal University of São Carlos, SP, Brazil.
- KALININ, A. L., RANTIN, F. T., FERNANDES, M. N. & GLASS, M. L., 1996, Ventilatory flow relative to intrabucal and intraopercular volumes in two ecologically distinct erythrinids (Hoplias malabaricus and Hoplias lacerdae) exposed to normoxia and graded hypoxia. Cap. 16, pp. 191-202. In: A. L. Val, V. M. F. Almeida-Val & D. J. Randall (eds.), Physiology and Biochemistry of Fishes of the Amazon Manaus, Editora do INPA, 402p.
- LOMHOLT, J. P. & JOHANSEN, K., 1979, Hypoxia acclimation in carp. How it affects O2 uptake, ventilation and O2 extraction from the water. Physiol. Zool., 52: 38-49.
- MILSOM, W. K., 1993, Afferent inputs regulating ventilation in vertebrates. In: J. E. P. W. Bicudo (ed.), The vertebrate gas transport cascade. Adaptations and mode of life, pp. 94-105. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Florida.
- MILSOM, W. K. & BRILL, R. W., 1986, Oxygen sensitive afferent information arising from the first gill arch of yellowfin tuna. Respir. Physiol, 66: 193-203.
- RANTIN, F. T. & JOHANSEN, K., 1984, Responses of the teleost Hoplias malabaricus to hypoxia. Env. Biol. Fish., 11: 221-228.
- RANTIN, F. T., KALININ, A. L., GLASS, M. L. & FERNANDES, M. N., 1992, Respiratory responses to hypoxia in relation to mode of life of two erythrinid species (Hoplias malabaricus and Hoplias lacerdae). J. Fish. Biol., 41: 805-812.
- RANTIN, F. T., GUERRA, C. D. R., KALININ, A. L. & GLASS, M. L., 1998, The influence of aquatic surface respirtion (ASR) on cardio-respiratory function of the serrasalmid fish Piaractus mesopotamicus. Comp. Biochem. Physiol, 119: 991-997.
- SAINT-PAUL, U., 1986, Potential for aquaculture of South American freshwater fishes: a review. Aquaculture, 54: 205-240.
- SAINT-PAUL, U. & BERNARDINO, G., 1988, Behavioral and ecomorphological responses of the neotropical pacu (P. mesopotamicus – Teleostei, Serrasalmidae) to oxygen-deficient waters. Exp. Biol., 48: 19-26.
- SATCHELL, G. H., 1991, Physiology and form of fish circulation Cambridge University Press, New York.
- SEVERI, W., 1991, Aspectos morfométricos e estruturais das brânquias de pacu (P. mesopotamicus – Holmberg, 1887, Osteichthyes, Serrasalmidae). M.Sc. Thesis, Federal University of São Carlos, SP, Brazil.
- SMITH, F. M. & JONES, D. R., 1982, The effect of changes in blood oxygen carrying capacity on ventilation volume in the rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). J. Exp. Biol., 97: 325-334.
- STEFFENSEN, J. F., LOMHOLT, J. P. & JOHANSEN, K., 1982, Gill ventilation and O2 extraction during graded hypoxia in two ecologically distinct species of flatfish, the flounder (Platichtys flesus) and the plaice (Pleuronectes platessa). Env. Biol. Fish., 7: 157-163.
Publication Dates
-
Publication in this collection
21 Aug 2000 -
Date of issue
May 2000
History
-
Received
21 Oct 1998 -
Accepted
25 Aug 1999