Efficacy of a Bioproduct Based on Andiroba Oil Applied to Eggs Stored for Varying Periods, in Different Environments^I

ABSTRACT

The study evaluated the efficacy of a bioproduct based on andiroba oil (BBAO) applied to eggs stored with or without treatment, at room temperature or refrigerated for up to 35 days. The product’s impact on physical quality, bacteriological concentrations, chemical composition, and lipid oxidation of yolks was analyzed. The results showed that eggs treated with the BBAO maintained better physical quality, with lower water loss and lower lipid oxidation compared to untreated eggs. Refrigerated storage further enhanced preservation, resulting in higher albumen contents and lower microbial contamination. Eggs stored without the bioproduct at room temperature exhibited higher bacterial growth, including Salmonella spp., which was absent in treated and refrigerated eggs. The findings suggest that combining the BBAO with refrigeration extends the shelf life of eggs by protecting against microbial contamination and oxidative degradation, offering a sustainable method to improve egg quality, particularly in regions with limited access to refrigeration.

Keywords:
Amazon; andiroba oil; bacteriology; egg quality; lipid oxidation

INTRODUCTION

Eggs are one of the most complete foods used in human diets, primarily due to their rich nutritional composition, containing vitamins, minerals, fatty acids, and proteins (Kusum et al., 2018; Eddin et al., 2019). The literature shows that several factors can cause changes in egg quality during storage, particularly time (period in days or weeks), temperature, humidity, air circulation, and the type of packaging used (Kusum et al., 2018; Pires et al., 2020). Therefore, refrigerating eggs is an excellent method to prolong their freshness, reduce the risk of microbial contamination, conserve their quality, and extend shelf life, making them safer overall (Rêgo et al., 2012; Salgado et al., 2018).

Notably, countries such as Brazil, the United Kingdom, Sweden, and Spain do not have specific laws requiring the storage of eggs in a refrigerated environment; only recommend that eggs be preferably stored in a refrigerated environment to extend their shelf life (Berkhoff et al., 2020; Pires et al., 2020). In these countries, eggs are typically stored at room temperature from the time they are laid by hens until they reach the consumer, particularly to satisfy local demand. This is primarily due to the costs of storage, which can become more expensive when the producer chooses to keep the eggs in a refrigerated environment all the time (Lana et al., 2017). However, this can become a significant issue along the chain, since the storage of eggs at room temperature requires that the processing and transportation from farm to consumer be extremely expedited to prevent the loss of quality in a short-term period (Rêgo et al., 2012).

Several bioproducts have been shown to conserve the internal and external quality of eggs: coating treatments applied to the eggshell surface have been reported as effective, since they act like “artificial cuticles” that decrease gas exchange through the eggshell, and uphold the egg’s inherent quality attributes for a greater period (Biladeau & Keene, 2009; Pissinati et al., 2014; Brasil et al., 2019; Rufino et al., 2024). According to Waimaleongora-Ek et al. (2009) and Brasil et al. (2019), an oil-based coating has demonstrated substantial efficacy in maintaining internal quality due to its hydrophobic properties, effective sealing characteristics, and prolonged storage stability. In this sense, oil coatings provide a protective barrier on eggshells that helps reduce water loss, delay microbial growth, and preserve internal quality, making them particularly useful in extending shelf life when refrigeration is limited. However, their effectiveness relies on proper application, as uneven coatings can compromise protection. Moreover, while they help control microbial contamination, they are not a standalone solution, requiring complementary storage practices to maximize their benefits (Biladeau & Keener, 2009; Pires et al., 2020; Rufino et al., 2024).

Andiroba oil (AO) (Carapa guianensis Aubl.) is a vegetable oil with exceptional physicochemical properties, including antibacterial, antioxidant, antiparasitic, antiseptic, antiviral, emollient, and insecticidal attributes (Meccia et al., 2013; Carvalho et al., 2019). Chemically, AO is mainly composed of saponifiable material, most notably fatty acids and compounds such as triterpenes, tannins, and alkaloids, which add significant commercial and economic value to the oil (Oliveira et al., 2018; Sousa et al., 2022). Microbiologically, AO has already demonstrated significant antimicrobial activity, encompassing the inhibition of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Enterobacter sp., and Paenibacillus species, including the pathogen P. larvae, with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values ranging from 1.56% to 25%. Its efficacy was notable in reducing viable cells in specific tests, and even after washing treated fabrics (Santos et al., 2012; Silva et al., 2024). In topical applications, chitosan/gelatin emulsions containing andiroba oil reduced the MIC against Staphylococcus aureus, suggesting a synergistic effect. The oil also inhibited Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. passiflorae at concentrations of 1% to 3%, and exhibited antifungal potential against Fusarium and Penicillium in corn grains, particularly at higher concentrations (Pires et al., 2015; Silva et al., 2019).

Based on the findings of Rufino et al. (2024), it was hypothesized that a bioproduct based on andiroba oil (BBAO) could exploit the exceptional properties of AO’s composition to form an artificial cuticle - or ‘biofilm’ - and enhance egg preservation (Biladeau & Keene, 2009; Pissinati et al., 2014). However, while Rufino et al. (2024) evaluated BBAO only at room temperature for only 7 days, it is believed that it could yield even better results when tested in combination with a refrigerated environment, and for longer periods (Caner, 2005; Muñoz et al., 2015; Ju et al., 2018). Additionally, essential oils have also demonstrated significant efficacy in this context. For instance, coatings incorporating Tahiti lemon (Citrus aurantifolia) essential oil have shown antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus, effectively reducing microbial loads on eggshells and preserving internal quality during storage (Oliveira et al., 2023). Similarly, thyme and oregano essential oils have exhibited strong antibacterial effects against foodborne pathogens, suggesting their potential as natural preservatives in egg coatings (Yasir et al., 2024). Therefore, the objective of the current study was to investigate the effects of the use of BBAO (or lack thereof) to coat eggs stored at room temperature or in a refrigerated environment for up to 35 days, by analyzing the impact on physical quality, bacteriological concentrations, chemical composition and yolk lipid oxidation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The current experiment was conducted at the Faculty of Agrarian Sciences of the Federal University of Amazonas (UFAM), located in the city of Manaus, state of Amazonas, Brazil. All experimental procedures were conducted in accordance with the guidelines of the Local Experimental Animal Care Committee and were approved by the UFAM ethics committee (protocol number 23105.015643/2024-61).

Preparation and application of the bioproduct

The AO used in this study was obtained through mechanical pressing of andiroba seeds (Carapa guianensis Aubl.), yielding approximately 500 g of unfiltered oil per kilogram of seed (Sousa et al., 2022). Subsequently, the oil resin was strained to obtain the virgin oil used in this study (Sousa et al., 2019). A fraction of the oil sample (approximately 500-800 mL) utilized in the bioproduct composition was stored in a hermetically sealed container, properly identified, and sent to a laboratory for physicochemical analyses and chemical characterization of the oil components. The analyses included: free fatty acids (%) and acid value (mg), determined using the AOCS Cd 3d-63 method (2017); peroxide value, according to the AOCS Cd 8b-90 method (2017); saponification value, following the AOCS Cd 3c-91 method (2017); iodine value, using the AOCS Cd 1-25 method (2022); pH, measured with a digital potentiometer; and moisture content, determined according to the AOCS Ca 2d-25 method (2017). The oil was also subjected to esterification with methanolic potassium hydroxide and n-hexane, following the AOCS Ce 2-66 method (2017), for characterization of its fatty acid profile using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS), as described by Sousa et al. (2022). Compound identification was performed by comparing mass spectra and linear retention indices (LRI) with those stored in the NIST Mass Spectral Search Program 2.0 Database and data from the literature (Adams, 2017).

The bioproduct formulation consisted of 15% AO, 10% surfactant (Tween 20), 74.99% distilled water, and 0.01% antioxidant (propionic acid). The preparation of the BBAO was according to the following process: AO was measured and poured into a 1L graduated plastic container according to the predetermined oil level. Next, the surfactant was added, and the mixture was stirred. Subsequently, distilled water was gradually added while stirring continued to ensure proper dilution, followed by the addition of the antioxidant. For the application process, the eggs were immersed in a sterilized container filled with the BBAO solution for 30 seconds.

Acquisition of eggs and experimental design

The eggs were obtained from 60-week-old Hissex Brown commercial laying hens housed in cages (1.00x0.45x0.45 m), with a stocking density of 0.16 birds/m². The hens were managed with diets formulated according to the nutritional recommendations of Rostagno et al. (2024). They had access to water ad libitum and were managed following the guidelines of the lineage manual.

The eggs were arranged in a completely randomized design with a factorial arrangement (1+2x5x2). The treatments consisted of a control (fresh eggs, unprocessed and newly collected), the use or non-use of BBAO on the eggs, five storage periods (7, 14, 21, 28, and 35 days), and two storage environments (room temperature and refrigerated), totaling 21 treatments with 25 eggs each, where each egg was considered an individual replicate. Thus, 250 eggs were treated with the bioproduct, while 250 other eggs were stored without it. The eggs were stored according to the predetermined periods and environments of the treatments. The average room temperature during the experimental period was 23.4 ºC (74.12 ºF), with an average relative humidity of 52%. The refrigerated environment had an average temperature of 4ºC, with 83% relative humidity. After the experimental periods ended, the analyses were conducted.

Physical quality of the eggs

Five eggs from each treatment were subjected to physical quality analysis following the methods described by Brasil et al. (2019). The eggs were placed in wire baskets and immersed in buckets containing different levels of sodium chloride (NaCl) with density variations from 1,075 to 1,100 g/cm3 (interval of 0.005) to evaluate their specific gravity. Then, the eggs were placed on a flat glass plate to determine albumen and yolk height, as well as yolk diameter using an electronic caliper. To separate albumen and yolk, a manual separator was used. Each one was placed in a plastic cup and weighed in an analytical balance. Eggshells were washed, dried in an oven (50 ºC / 122 ºF) for 48 hours, and weighed. Dry eggshells were used to determine the eggshell thickness using a digital micrometer. Average eggshell thickness was analyzed considering three regions: basal, meridional, and apical. The yolk color was evaluated using a ROCHE© colorimetric fan with a scale of 1 to 15. Haugh unit was calculated using the following formula (Haugh, 1937):

$H_{unit}=100\ast \log \left(H+7.57-1.7\ast W^{0.37}\right)$ (1)

Where:

H = albumen height (mm)

W = egg weight (g).

Bacteriological concentrations

The bacteriological concentration analysis followed Brazilian legislation standards (Brasil, 2018). Standardized samples were prepared by pooling the yolk and albumen from the internal content of five eggs per treatment, homogenizing the mixture for 60 seconds, and creating 10^-1 and 10^-2 dilutions in 1% buffered peptone water. Total aerobic mesophilic counts were conducted by inoculating Plate Count Agar and incubating at 36°C for 48 hours, with results expressed as CFU/g. Escherichia coli detection involved incubation of dilutions at 36°C, with positive results confirmed and reported as MPN/g. Staphylococcus aureus counts were determined on Baird-Parker agar under similar incubation conditions, expressed as CFU/g. Salmonella spp. analysis included pre-enrichment, selective broths, and confirmation via PCR.

Chemical composition and lipid oxidation of the yolk

Five eggs from each treatment were subjected to chemical composition analysis, which included the evaluation of moisture (%), minerals (%), fats (%), and proteins (%). These analyses were performed following the methods described by the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC, 2019). Moisture content was determined using AOAC method 925.10 (2019), mineral content by muffle furnace as per AOAC method 923.03 (2019), fat content using AOCS method Ba 3-38, and proteins by the Kjeldahl method following AOAC methodology 920.87 (2019). Another five eggs from each treatment were used to evaluate the potential lipid oxidation of the yolk (TBARS analysis). The eggs were broken, and the yolks were separated and frozen. Subsequently, the frozen yolks were subjected to lyophilization, where water and other solvents were removed by sublimation, bypassing the liquid state. The dehydrated yolks were then subjected to TBARS analysis to measure the degree of lipid oxidation using a modified version of the methodology described by Vyncke (1970) and adapted by Ramanathan and Das (1992).

Statistical analyses

The data were initially assessed for normality, and the necessary transformations were applied. Subsequently, a one-way ANOVA was conducted using R software (version 4.1.3), following Logan’s (2010) guidelines. Tukey’s honestly significant difference test was used to test the significant differences among the mean values. The results are presented as means, and the significant level for differences was set at p≤0.05.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 1 presents the average results for the physical quality of the eggs, focusing on the weight and percentage of the main egg structures. The use of the bioproduct had a significant impact (p<0.05) on egg weight and the percentages of yolk and shell, as eggs treated with the bioproduct resembled fresh eggs, being heavier, with a higher percentage of albumen, and a lower percentage of shell compared to those not treated with the bioproduct. Regarding the storage environment, eggs stored in a refrigerated environment showed higher (p<0.05) weight and albumen percentage than those stored at room temperature, but a lower shell percentage. As for the storage periods, as storage time increased, there was a significant reduction (p<0.05) in egg weight and the percentages of yolk and albumen, with a proportional increase in the shell.

Table 1
Physical quality (egg weight and percentages of yolk, albumen, and shell) of eggs coated or not with a bioproduct based on andiroba oil (BBAO) and stored at room temperature or refrigerated for different periods.

Factors1	Variables2
	EW	Y	A	S
BA
Fresh eggs	62.12±1.23a	30.55±0.15	56.44±0.29a	13.01±0.49c
Without BBAO	60.15±1.54c	29.59±0.32	54.49±0.41c	15.92±0.22a
With BBAO	61.31±1.14b	29.67±0.29	55.97±0.37b	14.36±0.34b
EN
Fresh eggs	62.12±1.23a	30.55±0.15	56.44±0.29a	13.01±0.49c
Environment	60.44±1.32c	29.79±0.25	54.86±0.40c	15.35±0.22a
Refrigerated	61.59±0.85b	29.99±0.19	55.71±0.37b	14.30±0.29b
SP
Fresh eggs	62.12±1.23a	30.55±0.15a	56.44±0.29a	13.01±0.49c
7 days	61.58±0.97b	29.96±0.22ab	56.02±0.42a	14.02±0.37c
14 days	60.97±1.01c	29.77±0.23b	55.72±0.43b	14.51±0.12c
21 days	60.67±1.12c	29.42±0.11b	55.48±0.15b	15.10±0.22b
28 days	60.49±0.99c	29.15±0.49b	55.12±0.28b	15.73±0.28b
35 days	60.15±1.12c	28.77±0.17c	54.41±0.32c	16.82±0.37a
Effect
BA3	0.05	0.10	0.05	0.04
EN3	0.05	0.10	0.04	0.03
SP3	0.04	0.05	0.05	0.05
BA*EN4	0.19	0.17	0.12	0.15
BA*SP4	0.21	0.17	0.13	0.22
EN*SP4	0.15	0.10	0.09	0.10
BA*EN*SP4	0.12	0.33	0.31	0.30
CV5, %	4.44	5.15	4.86	4.99

• ¹
  BA = bioproduct application. EN = environment. SP = storage period.
• ²
  EW = Egg weight (g); Y = Yolk (%); A = Albumen (%); S = Shell (%).
• ³
  Means followed by lowercase letters in the column indicate a significant effect of the evaluated factor on the analyzed variable according to Tukey’s test at 0.05.
• ⁴
  A p-value above 0.05 demonstrates the direct influence of one factor on the result of the other and vice versa.
• ⁵
  CV = Coefficient of variation.

Among the other variables of egg physical quality (Table 2), the use of the bioproduct had a significant impact (p<0.05) on yolk and albumen height and diameter, shell thickness, and Haugh unit. Eggs treated with the bioproduct showed better results than those that were not, closely resembling fresh eggs. Regarding the storage environment, eggs stored in a refrigerated environment showed higher (p<0.05) yolk and albumen heights and smaller yolk and albumen diameters than those stored at room temperature, although with statistically similar results for the Haugh unit. Concerning the storage periods evaluated, as the storage period increased, there was a significant reduction (p<0.05) in yolk and albumen heights, an increase in yolk and albumen diameters, and a reduction in Haugh unit results.

Table 2
Physical quality of eggs coated or not with a bioproduct based on andiroba oil (BBAO) and stored at room temperature or refrigerated for different periods.

Factors1	Variables2
	YH	AH	YD	AD	YC	PhY	PhA	ST	HU
BA
Fresh eggs	18.42±0.37a	7.44±0.32a	39.12±0.44c	72.15±1.12c	7.56±1.12	7.13±0.44	7.12±0.51	0.38±0.13b	85.59±1.15a
Without BBAO	17.12±0.49c	6.95±0.55b	42.15±0.59a	99.13±1.01a	7.42±0.97	6.99±0.25	7.01±0.44	0.38±0.15b	83.12±1.29b
With BBAO	18.01±0.62b	7.12±0.12ab	40.22±0.61b	83.17±0.98b	7.51±1.56	7.03±0.52	7.03±0.43	0.44±0.09a	83.85±1.14b
EN
Fresh eggs	18.42±0.37a	7.44±0.32a	39.12±0.44c	72.15±1.12c	7.56±1.12	7.13±0.44	7.12±0.51	0.38±0.13	85.59±1.09a
Environment	16.17±0.62b	6.93±0.44b	43.21±0.52a	98.15±0.92a	7.49±1.22	6.95±0.21	7.03±0.41	0.37±0.08	82.90±0.99b
Refrigerated	18.10±1.01a	7.05±0.22ab	41.01±1.03b	88.17±0.98b	7.52±1.21	7.02±0.59	7.01±0.27	0.38±0.09	83.32±1.57b
SP
Fresh eggs	18.42±0.37a	7.44±0.32a	39.12±0.44c	72.15±1.12c	7.56±1.12	7.13±0.44	7.12±0.51	0.38±0.13	85.59±1.12a
7 days	18.11±0.49a	7.21±0.69a	39.91±0.56c	79.52±0.96c	7.57±0.85	7.05±0.51	7.03±0.22	0.39±0.22	84.34±1.28b
14 days	17.92±1.02b	7.08±0.71a	40.03±0.53c	84.57±1.15b	7.49±1.33	7.01±0.59	7.07±0.29	0.38±0.15	83.70±1.08c
21 days	17.19±0.95b	6.99±0.85b	40.97±0.12c	89.25±2.13b	7.52±1.49	6.99±0.66	7.03±0.44	0.37±0.17	83.22±1.29c
28 days	16.99±0.84c	6.90±0.44b	42.13±0.27b	93.55±1.52a	7.42±0.99	6.99±0.37	7.01±0.29	0.38±0.16	82.69±1.17c
35 days	16.32±0.72c	6.83±0.56b	43.07±0.33a	99.15±3.21a	7.52±1.15	6.94±0.39	7.04±0.44	0.36±0.14	82.34±1.25c
Effect
BA3	0.05	0.05	0.01	0.01	0.32	0.44	0.44	0.05	0.02
EN3	0.04	0.04	0.02	0.01	0.33	0.12	0.29	0.23	0.03
SP3	0.02	0.04	0.01	0.01	0.28	0.12	0.14	0.27	0.02
BA*EN4	0.19	0.22	0.21	0.33	0.29	0.25	0.37	0.19	0.22
BA*SP4	0.12	0.42	0.17	0.31	0.43	0.39	0.13	0.15	0.27
EN*SP4	0.26	0.15	0.19	0.45	0.47	0.43	0.29	0.14	0.25
BA*EN*SP4	0.39	0.27	0.42	0.37	0.51	0.12	0.42	0.14	0.29
CV5, %	5.56	6.74	5.47	7.22	8.12	7.85	6.49	7.12	6.13

• ¹
  BA = bioproduct application. EN = environment. SP = storage period.
• ²
  YH = Yolk height (mm); AH = Albumen height (mm); YD = Yolk diameter (mm); AD = Albumen diameter (mm); YC = Yolk color; PhY = Yolk pH; PhA = Albumen pH; ST = Eggshell thickness (µm); HU = Haugh unit.
• ³
  Means followed by lowercase letters in the column indicate a significant effect of the evaluated factor on the analyzed variable according to Tukey’s test at 0.05.
• ⁴
  A p-value above 0.05 demonstrates the direct influence of one factor on the result of the other and vice versa.
• ⁵
  CV = Coefficient of variation.

The results of the physical quality of the eggs indicated that the use of the bioproduct had a significant impact on egg weight and the percentages of yolk, albumen, and shell, as well as affecting the integrity of the internal structures and shell thickness. The eggs treated with the bioproduct exhibited greater weight, a higher percentage of albumen, greater heights, and smaller diameters of yolk and albumen, along with a lower percentage of shell compared to the untreated eggs, resembling more closely the characteristics of fresh eggs. This can be attributed to the andiroba oil present in the bioproduct, which creates a hydrophobic barrier that reduces water loss, thus keeping the egg heavier and with a higher albumen content (Eddin et al., 2019; Alkan et al., 2020), which naturally tends to decrease the shell’s contribution to the overall composition of the egg (Anton, 2013).

Studies on coatings that incorporate essential oils such as Tahiti lemon, ginger, and garlic oils, further support this by demonstrating their ability to preserve the internal quality of eggs (Oliveira et al., 2022a,b; Oliveira et al., 2023a,b; Vale et al., 2023). Eggs coated with biopolymer-based films enriched with essential oils significantly maintained internal quality during storage in comparison to uncoated eggs (Sun et al., 2021; Oliveira et al., 2022a; Vale et al., 2023). Additionally, these coatings preserved internal egg quality as measured by higher Haugh unit values, which indicates firmer albumen and yolks, even after extended storage periods. These findings align with the enhanced internal quality observed in eggs treated with the bioproduct in this study (Biladeau & Keener, 2009; Jirangrat et al., 2010; Araújo et al., 2023; Oliveira et al., 2023b).

The main indicator of this improvement in quality due to the bioproduct was the greater shell thickness, indicating that the application of the bioproduct was able to create an additional protective cuticle on the eggs. This cuticle provided better protection for the internal contents of the eggs and maintained their superior physical characteristics; in this case greater heights and smaller diameters of yolk and albumen, indicating that these structures are firmer and better preserved (Anton, 2013; Lana et al., 2017). Similarly, other studies have shown that, when enriched with essential oils, biopolymers such as cassava starch, green banana flour, and whey protein isolate also enhance the external quality of eggs, providing a synergistic effect that improves both microbial control and physical preservation (Oliveira et al. 2022a,b; Araújo et al., 2023; Vale et al., 2023).

Regarding the effect of the storage environment on these variables, the fact that eggs stored in a refrigerated environment exhibited greater weight and albumen percentage, as well as a lower shell percentage and better internal quality results than those stored at room temperature, indicates that refrigeration helped maintain moisture, reducing the water activity within the egg and preserving its quality more efficiently (Biladeau & Keener, 2009; Jirangrat et al., 2010). These results reinforce that, despite being more expensive due to infrastructure and energy costs (Lana et al. 2017), storing eggs in a refrigerated environment is an important strategy for maintaining their quality over time, ensuring better physical and nutritional characteristics for consumption, especially by delaying microbial growth and deterioration, thereby prolonging the eggs’ shelf lives (Shin et al., 2012; Fikiin et al., 2020).

Concerning the effect of storage periods, it was observed that as the storage time increased, there was a significant reduction in egg weight, yolk and albumen percentages, with a proportional increase in the shell percentage, indicating progressive dehydration and concentration of the remaining solid components. The literature reports this as a natural occurrence for stored eggs, whether they are at room temperature or in a refrigerated environment, since microorganisms have more time to act with greater storage times, leading to a deterioration of the internal quality of the eggs (Ryu et al., 2011; Torrico et al., 2011; Upadhyaya et al., 2016; Oliveira et al., 2020a). Enhanced coatings incorporating substances like beeswax or chitosan have been reported to mitigate these effects by forming effective physical and microbiological barriers, complementing the preservation achieved through refrigeration, thus extending the functional shelf life of eggs (Sun et al., 2021).

The average results for the chemical composition variables of the eggs (Table 3) show that the use of the bioproduct and the storage period did not significantly affect (p>0.05) egg composition.

Table 3
Chemical composition of eggs coated or not with an bioproduct based on andiroba oil (BBAO) and stored at room temperature or refrigerated for different periods.

Factors1	Variables2
	MO	MI	FA	PT
BA
Fresh eggs	78.37±0.03	0.76±0.02	8.12±0.25	12.75±0.26
Without BBAO	77.99±2.33	0.76±0.07	8.50±1.43	12.75±1.62
With BBAO	78.03±2.30	0.76±0.19	8.34±1.02	12.87±1.67
EN
Fresh eggs	78.37±0.03	0.76±0.02	8.12±0.25	12.75±0.26
Environment	78.31±1.64	0.80±0.09	8.40±1.12	12.49±1.81
Refrigerated	78.21±2.78	0.72±0.17	8.50±1.19	12.57±1.54
SP
Fresh eggs	78.37±0.03	0.76±0.02	8.12±0.25	12.75±0.26
7 days	78.82±2.90	0.73±0.09	8.39±1.40	12.06±1.52
14 days	78.20±1.93	0.81±0.14	8.78±0.97	12.21±1.27
21 days	78.28±1.92	0.66±0.23	9.32±1.26	11.74±1.59
28 days	76.48±2.88	0.80±0.09	9.37±1.49	13.35±2.08
35 days	77.02±1.04	0.80±0.05	8.88±0.99	13.30±1.42
Effect
BA3	0.70	0.99	0.51	0.39
EN3	0.21	0.08	0.12	0.86
SP3	0.19	0.20	0.34	0.16
BA*EN4	0.19	0.29	0.89	0.06
BA*SP4	0.49	0.36	0.40	0.74
EN*SP4	0.14	0.50	0.08	0.33
BA*EN*SP4	0.60	0.63	0.44	0.42
CV5, %	2.89	8.52	13.67	12.94

• ¹
  BA = bioproduct application. EN = environment. SP = storage period. ² MO = moisture (%); MI = minerals (%); FA = fats (%); PT = proteins (%). ³ Means followed by lowercase letters in the column indicate a significant effect of the evaluated factor on the analyzed variable according to Tukey’s test at 0.05. ⁴ A p-value above 0.05 demonstrates the direct influence of one factor on the result of the other and vice versa. ⁵ CV = Coefficient of variation.

The fact that none of the evaluated factors significantly affected the assessed variables may indicate that the internal composition of the eggs is quite stable and resistant to small variations in production methods and storage conditions. Front this, it is understood that despite the natural water activity affecting their physical properties, their chemical properties are not significantly impacted, meaning they remain stable and are not easily influenced by external factors (Nasri et al., 2020a,b). From an industrial and commercial perspective, this condition ensures that the eggs maintain their nutritional and functional characteristics, regardless of variations in the applied production and storage methods (Feddern et al., 2017; Pires et al., 2020).

However, in the average values of the TBARS values for lipid oxidation of the yolk (Table 4), the use of the bioproduct had a significant impact (p<0.05), with the eggs treated with the bioproduct showing lower values than those not treated, yielding results closer to those of fresh eggs. Regarding the environment, the eggs stored in a refrigerated environment exhibited lower (p<0.05) values than those stored at room temperature. As for the evaluated storage periods, there was a significant increase (p<0.05) in the TBARS values as the storage period increased.

Table 4
Lipid oxidation of yolks of eggs coated or not with an bioproduct based on andiroba oil (BBAO) and stored at room temperature or refrigerated for different periods.

Factors1	TBARS values2
BA
Fresh eggs	0.168±0.09c
Without BBAO	0.207±0.08a
With BBAO	0.186±0.07b
EN
Fresh eggs	0.168±0.09c
Environment	0.204±0.07a
Refrigerated	0.183±0.08b
SP
Fresh eggs	0.168±0.09c
7 days	0.173±0.07c
14 days	0.179±0.08bc
21 days	0.182±0.02b
28 days	0.194±0.09b
35 days	0.208±0.09a
Effect
BA3	0.05
EN3	0.05
SP3	0.01
BA*EN4	0.12
BA*SP4	0.13
EN*SP4	0.12
BA*EN*SP4	0.15
CV5, %	4.59

• ¹
  BA = bioproduct application. EN = environment. SP = storage period.
• ²
  The TBARS values represent the degree of lipid oxidation expressed in mg of MDA/kg of dry egg. ³ Means followed by lowercase letters in the column indicate a significant effect of the evaluated factor on the analyzed variable according to Tukey’s test at 0.05.
• ⁴
  A p-value above 0.05 demonstrates the direct influence of one factor on the result of the other and vice versa.
• ⁵
  CV = Coefficient of variation.

Even with the consistency in chemical composition, TBARS values, which indicate the level of lipid oxidation in the yolk, were significantly impacted by the bioproduct use, with treated eggs exhibiting lower values than untreated eggs, and being closer to fresh eggs, with less oxidation of the lipids contained in the yolk. Once again, this can be attributed to the additional protective cuticle created by the bioproduct based on andiroba oil, which, despite not influencing the chemical composition of the eggs (including lipid contents), protects the physical properties of the egg more effectively by reducing entrance and exit of O₂ through shell pores, preventing the lipids therein from suffering oxidative action (Rêgo et al., 2012; Pissinati et al., 2014; Salgado et al., 2018; Oliveira et al., 2020a). As a result, the eggs treated with the bioproduct exhibited better-preserved lipid properties, indicating the action of the bioproduct during egg storage, regardless of the environment and duration of storage (Musa et al., 2011; Scatolini-Silva et al., 2013; Liu et al., 2016).

The use of oil-based coatings has been extensively studied as a strategy to mitigate lipid oxidation in eggs during storage. Research indicates that edible vegetable oil coatings can slightly increase peroxide values in the edible portions of eggs due to minimal lipid migration from the coating into the egg’s interior (Pires et al., 2020; Eyng et al., 2021). However, the majority of the labeled lipids remain confined to the eggshell and membrane, suggesting minimal impact on the egg’s composition while still offering protective benefits against oxidation (Wardy et al., 2011; Nongtaodum et al., 2013).

Regarding the evaluated environments, the fact that eggs stored in a refrigerated environment exhibited lower levels of lipid oxidation compared to those stored at room temperature confirms that refrigeration is effective in preserving the physical integrity of egg lipids, as the reduction in temperature slows down chemical reactions, including lipid oxidation (Pike & Peng, 1985; Nimalaratne et al., 2016; Qingling et al., 2017). Lipid oxidation is a reaction involving the interaction of lipids with O₂, resulting in lipid degradation and the formation of undesirable compounds that can compromise egg quality (Pike & Peng, 1985; Shareef & Al-Moussawi, 2018). At the higher temperatures observed in room temperature conditions, the oxidation rate increases due to the greater availability of thermal energy, increased enzymatic activity, and oxygen (Nimalaratne et al., 2016). In this sense, wax-based coatings, such as carnauba wax, have also shown potential for maintaining the internal quality of eggs during storage, although they may have limited effectiveness in minimizing oxidative processes in the yolk. Nevertheless, higher concentrations of wax have demonstrated better results in reducing lipid oxidation compared to lower concentrations (Sun et al., 2021).

On the other hand, refrigeration reduces thermal energy and limits enzymatic activity, which decreases the rate of lipid oxidation (Shin et al., 2012; Fikiin et al., 2020). Furthermore, the refrigerated environment helps maintain the integrity of the eggshell and reduces gas permeability, which also contributes to lower oxygen ingress, and consequently less internal lipid oxidation (Torrico et al., 2011). Thus, storing eggs in refrigerated environments is an effective practice for physically preserving lipids and prolonging egg freshness, preventing lipid degradation and maintaining other characteristics for a longer period (Jirangrat et al., 2010; Salgado et al., 2018).

Moreover, lipid oxidation is an inevitable process that intensifies over time, as evidenced by the significant increase in TBARS values with prolonged storage, regardless of external conditions (Pissinati et al., 2014; Salgado et al., 2018). This phenomenon occurs due to continuous exposure to oxygen and the activity of oxidative enzymes naturally present in the egg, which gradually contribute to the degradation of lipids (Nimalaratne et al., 2016; Qingling et al., 2017). Although factors such as refrigeration and the presence of bioproducts can slow down the oxidation rate, they cannot completely halt the cumulative oxidative damage that occurs over extended storage periods (Rêgo et al., 2012; Shin et al., 2012; Qingling et al., 2017).

Finally, it is important to highlight that, after analyzing the bacterial concentrations in the eggs, a minimal presence of aerobic mesophiles, Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus aureus was detected (around ≤1.00x10³); only in eggs stored at room temperature, and especially those without the use of the bioproduct. In fresh eggs, those treated with the bioproduct, and those stored in a refrigerated environment, the presence of aerobic mesophiles, Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus aureus was not detected.

The use of essential oil-based coatings has been explored as an alternative method to reduce microbial loads and preserve egg quality during storage, particularly when refrigeration is not available (Oliveira et al., 2022a,b; Oliveira et al., 2023a,b). Coatings containing essential oils such as Tahiti lemon, ginger, and basil have been shown to significantly reduce the counts of aerobic mesophilic bacteria on eggshells as compared to uncoated eggs (Sun et al., 2021; Oliveira et al., 2022b; Oliveira et al., 2023a). Similarly, clove oil has demonstrated effectiveness in sanitizing eggs, with results comparable to paraformaldehyde; while combinations of clove and oregano oils have also shown promising results, albeit with varying statistical significance (Oliveira et al., 2020).

Eggs stored at room temperature without the bioproduct showed occurrences of Salmonella spp., a concerning finding considering the pathogen’s strong association with foodborne illness outbreaks. However, the absence of Salmonella spp. in fresh eggs, those treated with the bioproduct, and those stored in refrigerated conditions highlights the protective role of these interventions. Replacing or complementing refrigeration with essential oil coatings could further improve microbial safety. Studies have shown that coatings enriched with essential oils, such as those combining whey protein isolate and garlic oil, not only reduce microbial loads but also maintain internal egg quality, as indicated by higher Haugh unit values during storage (Sun et al., 2021; Araújo et al., 2023; Vale et al., 2023).

These results from the bacteriological analyses provide valuable insights into the influence of storage conditions and the application of the bioproduct on the microbiological safety of eggs. The detection of minimal levels of aerobic mesophiles, Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus aureus (≤1.00x10³) exclusively in eggs stored at room temperature, and particularly those without the bioproduct, underscores the vulnerability of eggs to bacterial contamination under less controlled conditions. This can be a significant issue for markets that do not require eggs to be stored in refrigerated environments, often leaving them at room temperature, as is the case in Brazil. Even at low levels, these microorganisms serve as indicators of egg deterioration and may pose public health risks if consumed (Cindric et al., 2007; Chen et al., 2019; Chousalkar et al., 2020). In contrast, their absence in fresh eggs, those treated with the bioproduct, and those stored under refrigeration demonstrates the protective effects of both refrigeration and the bioproduct in preventing bacterial contamination (Biladeau & Keener, 2009; Eddin et al., 2019).

The detection of Salmonella spp. exclusively in eggs stored at room temperature without the bioproduct is particularly alarming, as this pathogen is a major contributor to foodborne illness outbreaks worldwide (Gast et al., 2006; Keerthirathne et al., 2020; Park et al., 2020). The complete absence of Salmonella spp. in fresh eggs, those treated with the bioproduct, and those stored under refrigeration, regardless of the storage duration, highlights the efficacy of these protective measures in mitigating the risk of contamination by this dangerous pathogen. These findings reinforce the critical role of combining proper storage practices with the application of bioproducts to enhance microbiological safety (Park et al., 2020; Gast et al., 2020).

It is also important to mention the importance of proper storage and handling practices to ensure the microbiological safety of eggs. Storage at room temperature, especially without the application of bioproducts, increases the risk of bacterial growth and contamination (Eddin et al., 2019; Pires et al., 2020). In contrast, refrigeration associated with the use of bioproducts has been proven to be effective strategies for keeping eggs free from bacterial contamination, thereby ensuring food safety (Wardy et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2020; Dai et al., 2022; Pires et al., 2022). This suggests that recommended practices for the safe storage of eggs not only improve product quality, but may also be essential for preventing public health risks associated with foodborne pathogens (Gast et al., 2006; Dai et al., 2022).

CONCLUSION

The results of this study demonstrate that the use of a bioproduct based on andiroba oil and storage in a refrigerated environment have a significant impact on the preservation of the physical and microbiological quality of eggs. The eggs treated with the bioproduct exhibited better physical quality and lower levels of lipid oxidation due to the hydrophobic barrier created by the bioproduct. Refrigeration contributed to maintaining moisture, reducing water activity, and slowing down chemical and microbial reactions, resulting in better preservation of the physical and nutritional characteristics of the eggs. Additionally, the bacteriological analysis revealed that the combination of bioproduct and refrigerated storage was effective in preventing bacterial contamination, including Salmonella spp.; while eggs stored at room temperature without the bioproduct showed a higher risk of contamination. Thus, the use of bioproducts and refrigeration, especially in combination, is recommended as the best strategy to extend the shelf life of eggs while maintaining their quality and safety, preventing natural deterioration and contamination by pathogens.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We acknowledge the support of Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Amazonas (FAPEAM) and the Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciência Animal e Recursos Pesqueiros (PPGCARP) of the Universidade Federal do Amazonas (UFAM) in developing this study.

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• FUNDING
  None.
• DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
  The data of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
• DISCLAIMER/PUBLISHER’S NOTE
  The published papers’ statements, opinions, and data are those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s). The editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions, or products referred to in the content.

Edited by

• Section Editor:
  Rodrigo Garófallo Garcia

Data availability

The data of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  31 Mar 2025
• Date of issue
  2025

History

• Received
  25 Sept 2024
• Accepted
  26 Jan 2025