Synergistic Effects of Phyllanthus niruri, B-Complex Vitamins, and Vitamin C on Growth Performance and Meat Lipid Profile of Broiler ChickensABSTRACT
This study evaluated the effect of Phyllanthus niruri combined with B-complex vitamins and vitamin C administered through drinking water on the growth performance and meat lipid profile of broilers. A total of 200 male broiler chicks (Cobb-500) were randomly allocated to five treatment groups (T0, T1, T2, T3, and T4) with supplementation levels of 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 g/L of drinking water, respectively. Each group contained four replicates of 10 birds each, in a completely randomized design (CRD). The data were analyzed using SPSS 20.0 (IBM Corp., USA). The experiment lasted 20 days, from 15 to 35 days of age. The results showed significantly higher weight gain (p<0.05) and improved feed conversion ratio (FCR) (p<0.05) in the T2, T3, and T4 groups compared with the T0 and T1 groups. Regarding the lipid profile, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) was significantly increased (p<0.05) in the T3 and T4 groups compared with the remaining groups. Conversely, low-density lipoprotein (LDL), triglycerides, and total cholesterol were significantly higher (p<0.05) in the T0 group compared with all other groups. In conclusion, supplementation with Phyllanthus niruri and vitamins improved growth performance and the lipid profile of broiler meat. The optimal response was achieved at 3 g/L of drinking water, suggesting that this phytogenic-vitamin combination is a promising nutritional strategy for producing healthier broiler meat.
Keywords:
Broiler; meat quality; Phyllanthus niruri; vitamin; lipoprotein
INTRODUCTION
The livestock sector is key to global food security, as it provides high-quality animal protein essential to human nutrition. The demand for animal-derived food products has grown significantly across the world in recent years due to population growth, rising per capita income, and changing food preferences (FAO, 2023). Poultry production, especially broiler farming, is one of the fastest growing and most productive industries in the production of proteins, given its relatively low production cost, high feed efficiency, and the fast growth rate of the birds (Alagawany et al., 2021). The high nutritional value, low cost, and availability of broiler meat make it a popular choice. However, consumers have become more concerned about meat quality, specifically lipid composition. High levels of cholesterol, particularly low-density lipoprotein (LDL), are linked to metabolic disorders, cardiovascular diseases, and atherosclerosis (Surai et al., 2021).
Broiler chickens, being fast-growing birds raised in high-production facilities, are also known to have higher fat levels, which can negatively affect carcass quality and consumer acceptance (Ogbuewu et al., 2022). Therefore, there is considerable interest in developing nutritional approaches to lower cholesterol levels in the meat without compromising production.
Phytogenic feed additives have become a great focus of attention in recent years as natural alternatives to the synthetic growth promoters due to their antimicrobial, antioxidant, and hypolipidemic properties (Hafeez et al., 2020; Shuaib et al., 2021, 2022; Abd El-Hack et al., 2022; Ullah et al., 2023; Mushtaq et al., 2025; Saqib et al., 2025; Ullah et al., 2025). Among these, Phyllanthus niruri has been extensively investigated for its bioactive properties.
Commonly called stonebreaker or chanca piedra, Phyllanthus niruri is a medicinal plant with abundant bioactive constituents such as flavonoids, lignans, tannins, and terpenoids with antioxidant, antimicrobial, and hypolipidemic activity (Sarin et al., 2014; Khan et al., 2021; Ogbuewu et al., 2022). Its proximate composition includes moderate levels of protein, fiber, and essential minerals, making it a functional phytogenic additive in poultry nutrition (Alagawany et al., 2021; Abd El-Hack et al., 2022).
Previous studies have shown that Phyllanthus niruri can significantly reduce total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) levels while improving lipid metabolism (Khan et al., 2021; Ogbuewu et al., 2022). These effects are mainly attributed to the inhibition of enzymes involved in cholesterol synthesis, and the activation of lipid clearance mechanisms.
Along with phytogenic compounds, vitamin supplementation is one of the most important factors in regulating lipid metabolism and oxidative balance. There is evidence that B-complex vitamins, including niacin (vitamin B3) and pantothenic acid (vitamin B5), can help lower LDL and triglycerides by regulating pathways involved in lipid synthesis and lipoprotein metabolism (Attia et al., 2021).
Vitamin C is a powerful antioxidant that helps lower cholesterol by promoting the oxidation of fatty acids, reducing oxidative stress, and thereby enhancing overall metabolic efficiency (El-Gendy et al., 2023). The combined application of phytogenic additives and vitamins could be synergistic, enhancing the growth performance of broiler chickens and improving meat quality. Moreover, administration through drinking water is an accepted method of delivering supplements in poultry production systems, as it enables consistent consumption and rapid absorption, especially in intensive production systems.
So far, limited information is available regarding the combined application of Phyllanthus niruri with vitamin B-complex and vitamin C in drinking water and its effects on the production performance and lipid quality of broiler meat. Hence, the present study aimed to assess the performance parameters and lipid profile of broiler meat from birds offered drinking water supplemented with Phyllanthus niruri, in combination with B-complex vitamins and vitamin C. The goal of this approach is to develop a sustainable nutrition program capable of enhancing meat quality while optimizing growth responses.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Ethical Approva
The experimental protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Dental Medicine at Airlangga University, Surabaya, Indonesia (Notification: 057/HRECC.FODM/II/2021).
Study Location, Birds’ Management, and Housing
The research was conducted in a poultry farm in the Division of Animal Husbandry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Airlangga University, Surabaya, Indonesia. A total of 200 male broiler chicks (Cobb-500) were randomly allocated to five dietary treatments (T0, T1, T2, T3, and T4), with four replicates of ten birds each. T0 was the control group, which received no treatment; T1 was treated with Phyllanthus niruri + vitamin B complex (Pt Multifarma Satwa Maju-Tangerang, Indonesia) + vitamin C (Vitamin C uncoated: Pt Multifarma Satwa Maju-Tangerang, Indonesia) at the level of 1 g/L of drinking water; T2 was treated with Phyllanthus niruri + vitamin B complex + vitamin C at the level of 2 g/L of drinking water; T3 was treated with Phyllanthus niruri + vitamin B complex + vitamin C at the level of 3 g/L of drinking water; and T4 was treated with Phyllanthus niruri + vitamin B complex + vitamin C at the level of 4 g/L of drinking water. All groups received the same feed for day-old chicks: a starter diet until the second week, followed by a finisher diet thereafter (Table 1). All chicks were subjected to the same management conditions. The birds were exposed to continuous lighting for the first three days, after which the lighting was switched to a 23 h light: dark (L:D) cycle for the remainder of the period. The brooding temperature of the house was 35 °C (95 °F) during the first week of brooding and decreased by approximately 2.8 °C (5 °F) each week until it reached nearly 24 °C (75 °F). The birds were raised on the floor, with sawdust as bedding. Water and feed were available ad libitum. A biosecurity program and strategy were implemented on the poultry farm to minimize the risk of disease transmission. To prevent viral diseases, a suitable vaccination program for broilers (Marek’s disease, Newcastle disease, and Gumboro disease) was administered on predetermined days throughout the study. The treatment was carried out for 20 days, from 15 to 35 days of age. Figure 1 shows the experimental layout, and Table 1 shows the proximate composition of Phyllanthus niruri (Sarin et al., 2014; Danladi et al., 2018).
Values are approximate ranges derived from published literature; variations may occur depending on geographical origin and processing methods (Sarin et al., 2014; Danladi et al., 2018).
Production Performance Indices
Production performance indicators (feed intake (FI), weight gain (WG), and feed conversion ratio (FCR)) were calculated weekly from days 15 to 35. The amount of FI was determined by subtracting the amount of feed rejected from the total feed supplied each day. The difference between the start and end weight was used to calculate the WG. FI was divided by WG to obtain the FCR (Shuaib et al., 2021, 2022; Shahzad et al., 2024). Mortality was recorded throughout the experiment. These formulae are summarized below:
Meat Quality Determination Through Lipid Profile
Five birds per treatment were randomly selected for meat quality analysis at the end of the experiment. Then, the birds were humanely slaughtered in accordance with ethical and hygienic procedures. Breast muscle samples (about 50 g) were aseptically collected from each selected bird immediately after slaughter and stored at −20 °C until analysis. Afterward, the samples were homogenized and used for biochemical analysis to assess meat quality, including lipid profile. Commercial enzymatic assay kits (LabAssay™, Manufacturer: FUJIFILM Wako Pure Chemical, Osaka, Japan) were used to measure high-density lipoprotein (HDL), low-density lipoprotein (LDL), triglycerides, and total cholesterol using a UV-visible spectrophotometer (UV-1900i/UV-1800, Manufacturer: Shimadzu Corporation, Kyoto, Japan). All analyses were performed according to the manufacturer’s procedures and standard laboratory procedures.
Statistical Analysis
Data were analyzed using a completely randomized design (CRD) with one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) in SPSS version 20.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). Each replicate pen was considered the experimental unit for all analyses. Before ANOVA, data were evaluated for normality and homogeneity of variance using the Shapiro-Wilk and Levene’s tests, respectively. When a significant treatment effect was detected, means were separated using Tukey’s multiple comparison test. Differences among treatments were considered statistically significant at p<0.05. Histograms were generated using GraphPad Prism version 8 (GraphPad Software, San Diego, CA, USA). The statistical model used was
where Yij = observed variable; μ = overall mean; Ti = treatment effect; and εij = random error.
RESULTS
Effect of Phyllanthus niruri and Vitamins (B Complex and Vitamin C) in Drinking Water on the Production Performance Indices of Broilers
The results of the combined effect of Phyllanthus niruri and vitamins (B complex and vitamin C) in drinking water on the production performance indices of broilers are shown in Table 3 and Figures 2, 3, and 4. Dietary supplementation with Phyllanthus niruri and vitamins did not significantly affect feed intake (p=0.062). However, weight gain was significantly improved (p=0.044), with the highest values observed in T2 and T3 compared with the control (T0), T1, and T4 groups. The feed conversion ratio (FCR) improved (p=0.032) in the T2, T3, and T4 groups compared with the T0 and T1 groups. Mortality remained zero across all treatments.
Effect of Phyllanthus niruri and vitamins (B-complex and vitamin C) supplementation in drinking water on the feed intake (FI) of broiler chickens.
Effect of Phyllanthus niruri and vitamins (B-complex and vitamin C) supplementation in drinking water on the weight gain (WG) of broiler chickens. Bars bearing different superscripts (a, b, c) indicate significant differences among treatments (p<0.05). T0 = control group with no treatment; T1 = receiving Phyllanthus niruri + vitamin B complex + vitamin C at the level of 1 g/L of drinking water; T2 = receiving Phyllanthus niruri + vitamin B complex + vitamin C at the level of 2 g/L of drinking water; T3 = receiving Phyllanthus niruri + vitamin B complex + vitamin C at the level of 3 g/L of drinking water; and T4 = receiving Phyllanthus niruri + vitamin B complex + vitamin C at the level of 4 g/L of drinking water.
Effect of Phyllanthus niruri and vitamins (B-complex and vitamin C) supplementation in drinking water on the feed conversion ratio (FCR) of broiler chickens. Bars bearing different superscripts (a, b) indicate significant differences among treatments (p<0.05). T0 = control group with no treatment; T1 = receiving Phyllanthus niruri + vitamin B complex + vitamin C at the level of 1 g/L of drinking water; T2 = receiving Phyllanthus niruri + vitamin B complex + vitamin C at the level of 2 g/L of drinking water; T3 = receiving Phyllanthus niruri + vitamin B complex + vitamin C at the level of 3 g/L of drinking water; and T4 = receiving Phyllanthus niruri + vitamin B complex + vitamin C at the level of 4 g/L of drinking water.
Effect of Phyllanthus niruri and Vitamins (B Complex and Vitamin C) in Drinking Water on Broiler Breast Meat Lipid Profiles
The results regarding the combined effect of Phyllanthus niruri and vitamins (B complex and vitamin C) in drinking water on the broiler breast meat lipid profile are described in Table 4 and Figure 5. High-density lipoprotein (HDL) showed a significant difference (p=0.014) among the groups, with the highest levels observed in the T3 and T4 groups, as compared with T0, T1, and T2. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL), triglycerides, and total cholesterol (TC) concentrations were significantly higher in the control group (T0) compared with all other treatment groups (T1, T2, T3, and T4), while there was no significant difference between T1 and T2.
Effect of Phyllanthus niruri and vitamins (B complex and vitamin C) in drinking water on broiler breast meat lipid profiles. Bars bearing different superscripts (a, b, c) indicate significant differences among treatments (p<0.05). T0 = control group with no treatment; T1 = receiving Phyllanthus niruri + vitamin B complex + vitamin C at the level of 1 g/L of drinking water; T2 = receiving Phyllanthus niruri + vitamin B complex + vitamin C at the level of 2 g/L of drinking water; T3 = receiving Phyllanthus niruri + vitamin B complex + vitamin C at the level of 3 g/L of drinking water; and T4 = receiving Phyllanthus niruri + vitamin B complex + vitamin C at the level of 4 g/L of drinking water.
DISCUSSION
This study assessed the effect of Phyllanthus niruri, in combination with B-complex vitamins and vitamin C, via drinking-water supplementation, on the performance indicators and lipid profile of broiler meat. Broiler chickens supplemented with Phyllanthus niruri along with B-complex vitamins and vitamin C showed significantly improved growth performance, including body weight gain and feed conversion ratio, but showed no significant effects on feed intake or mortality rate. Non-significant effects on feed intake indicated that the supplementation did not affect the palatability of the feed and/or voluntary feed intake, which is consistent with previous findings that nutrient utilization was improved in the presence of phytogenic additives, but feed intake was not affected (Alagawany et al., 2021; Abd El-Hack et al., 2022).
This increase in weight gain may be attributable to the antioxidant, antimicrobial, and hepatoprotective properties of the bioactive compounds (flavonoids, tannins, and polyphenols) found in Phyllanthus niruri for T2, T3, and T4. These compounds may positively influence gut morphology and nutrient utilization, as reported in earlier studies (Hernández-Patlán et al., 2020; Khan et al., 2021; Ogbuewu et al., 2022). Moreover, B-complex vitamins are required as cofactors for energy metabolism and protein synthesis, and vitamin C is important for antioxidant defense and immune response during intensive production (Attia et al., 2021; Surai et al., 2021; El-Gendy et al., 2023). The synergistic effect of phytogenic compounds and vitamins may have contributed to improved metabolic efficiency and growth. The supplementation groups, especially T2, showed significantly better feed conversion ratios, suggesting improved feed efficiency and nutrient utilization. The improvement could be linked to improved gut health and digestive activity, decreased pathogenic load, and decreased oxidative stress, all of which lead to efficient nutrient partitioning towards growth (Alagawany et al., 2021; Surai et al., 2021; Abd El-Hack et al., 2022).
There was no mortality across all treatments, indicating no adverse effects of supplementation; which is consistent with previous results showing better health status and survivability when broilers were fed diets supplemented with phytogenic additives (Ogbuewu et al., 2022). Based on the overall results, it can be concluded that the use of Phyllanthus niruri, along with vitamin supplementation, may offer a sustainable alternative to antibiotic growth promoters (AGP) for enhancing broiler production and feed efficiency ratio (FER).
The present results indicate that supplementation with Phyllanthus niruri alone or in combination with B-complex vitamins and vitamin C significantly improved the lipid profile of broiler breast meat, characterized by increased HDL and reduced LDL, triglycerides, and total cholesterol. These effects demonstrated the plant’s hypolipidemic activity. The elevated HDL cholesterol levels, especially in T3 and T4, may be related to flavonoids and antioxidant compounds in Phyllanthus niruri, which enhance reverse cholesterol transport and reduce lipid oxidation (Alagawany et al., 2021; Ogbuewu et al., 2022). Vitamin C and niacin (vitamin B3) can also help increase HDL cholesterol by exerting antioxidant effects and regulating lipid metabolism (Ganji et al., 2003; Surai et al., 2021; El-Gendy et al., 2023). Phytochemicals such as flavonoids and rutin suppress cholesterol synthesis pathways and help clear LDL, which may be responsible for the reduction in LDL cholesterol (Kiokias et al., 2018; Hernández-Patlán et al., 2020). Moreover, niacin inhibits hepatic triglyceride synthesis and VLDL secretion, which further decreases LDL levels (Ganji et al., 2003; Abd El-Hack et al., 2022). There was a significant reduction in triglyceride levels, particularly in T4. This is possibly attributable to the compounds rutin and lupeol, which inhibit lipogenic enzymes and fatty acid synthesis (Ogbuewu et al., 2022). In addition, vitamin C and niacin can help reduce oxidative stress and triglyceride synthesis, thereby enhancing lipid metabolism (Surai et al., 2021; El-Gendy et al., 2023).
The decrease in total cholesterol observed in the groups that received the combined supplementation (T1, T2, T3, and T4) further confirms its hypocholesterolemic effect. Plant sterols, such as β-sitosterol, are known to block cholesterol absorption in the gut, while vitamins B5 and B12 assist lipid metabolic pathways and regulate lipoproteins (Alagawany et al., 2021; Attia et al., 2021). The synergistic effect of Phyllanthus niruri and vitamin supplementation appears to benefit lipid metabolism, antioxidant status, and meat quality in poultry, suggesting its potential as a nutritional approach for healthier poultry products. The overall performance of the T3 group was better than that of the T4 group, indicating the optimum effective level of Phyllanthus niruri and vitamin supplementation. The higher inclusion level (4 g/L) might reduce nutrient utilization because of the high concentrations of phytochemicals, such as polyphenols and tannins, which can impair nutrient absorption and digestion. Thus, the 3 g/L dose was optimal for enhancing growth performance and lipid metabolism in broiler chickens.
CONCLUSION
Supplementation of broiler drinking water with Phyllanthus niruri, B-complex vitamins, and vitamin C improved growth performance and feed conversion efficiency without affecting feed intake or mortality. The treatment also favorably modified the meat lipid profile by reducing LDL cholesterol, triglycerides, and total cholesterol, while increasing HDL cholesterol. Among the tested inclusion levels, 3 g/L (T3) produced the most consistent overall response in terms of growth performance and lipid profile. The comparatively lower response observed at 4 g/L (T4) suggests that increasing the inclusion level beyond 3 g/L did not provide additional benefits under the conditions of the present study.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors appreciate the University of Airlangga, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, for funding this research work (RKAT Funds No. 1405/UN3.1.6/PT/2021).
REFERENCES
-
Abd El-Hack ME, El-Saadony MT, Shafi ME, et al. Alternatives to antibiotics in poultry nutrition: A review. Poultry Science 2022;101:101644. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2021.101644
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2021.101644 -
Alagawany M, Abd El-Hack ME, Farag MR, et al. Phytogenic feed additives in poultry nutrition: Mechanisms and applications. Animals 2021;11:1481. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11051481
» https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11051481 -
Attia YA, Alagawany M, Abd El-Hack ME, Mahgoub SA, Alqhtani AH. Effects of dietary vitamin supplementation on broiler performance and immunity. Animals 2021;11:2139. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11082139
» https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11082139 -
Danladi S, Idris MA, Umar II. Pharmacological activities and phytochemical constituents of Phyllanthus niruri. Journal of Phytopharmacology 2018;7(3):341-8. https://doi.org/10.31254/phyto.2018.7318
» https://doi.org/10.31254/phyto.2018.7318 -
El-Gendy MM, El-Kholy MS, Mahrose KM, et al. Role of vitamin C in improving growth performance and antioxidant status of broiler chickens. Poultry Science 2023;102:102345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2023.102345
» https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psj.2023.102345 - FAO. World livestock report: transforming the livestock sector for sustainable development. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; 2023.
-
Ganji SH, Kamanna VS, Kashyap ML. Niacin and cholesterol metabolism. Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 2003;14:298-305. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0955-2863(02)00284-X
» https://doi.org/10.1016/S0955-2863(02)00284-X -
Hafeez A, Sohail M, Ahmad A, et al. Selected herbal plants showing enhanced growth performance, ileal digestibility, bone strength, and blood metabolites in broilers. Journal of Applied Animal Research 2020;48(1):448-53. https://doi.org/10.1080/09712119.2020.1818569
» https://doi.org/10.1080/09712119.2020.1818569 -
Hernández-Patlán D, Solis-Cruz B, Pontin KP, et al. Evaluation of phytogenic feed additives in broiler chickens: Effects on gut health and performance. Frontiers in Veterinary Science 2020;7:173. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2020.00173
» https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2020.00173 -
Khan RU, Naz S, Nikousefat Z, et al. Potential applications of herbal extracts in poultry production. World's Poultry Science Journal 2021;77:1-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/00439339.2021.1872747
» https://doi.org/10.1080/00439339.2021.1872747 -
Kiokias S, Proestos C, Oreopoulou V. Effect of natural food antioxidants against LDL and DNA oxidative changes. Antioxidants 2018;7(10):133. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox7100133
» https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox7100133 -
Mushtaq M, Shuaib M, Iqbal A, et al. Antibacterial and immuno-modulatory effects of probiotics and phytobiotics in spent Rhode Island Red layers. Pakistan Journal of Zoology 2025;57(3):1409-20. https://doi.org/10.17582/journal.pjz/20230305080346
» https://doi.org/10.17582/journal.pjz/20230305080346 - Ogbuewu IP, Mbajiorgu CA, Mbajiorgu EF. Phytogenic feed additives and lipid metabolism in poultry. Veterinary and Animal Science 2022;16:100254.
-
Sarin B, Verma N, Martín JP, et al. An overview of important ethnomedicinal herbs of Phyllanthus species: Present status and future prospects. The Scientific World Journal 2014;2014:839172. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/839172
» https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/839172 -
Shahzad F, Tahir M, Hafeez A, et al. Effects of dietary protein levels enriched with subtilisin protease on the performance and nutrients utilization of broiler chicks. Pakistan Journal of Zoology 2024;56(3):1101-7. https://doi.org/10.17582/journal.pjz/20220315140341
» https://doi.org/10.17582/journal.pjz/20220315140341 -
Shuaib M, Ullah N, Hafeez A, et al. Dietary fortification of crushed seeds of Bonium persicum on growth performance, apparent ileal digestibility and blood metabolites in broiler chicks during the starter phase. Italian Journal of Animal Science 2021;20(1):1-5. https://doi.org/10.1080/1828051X.2020.1861555
» https://doi.org/10.1080/1828051X.2020.1861555 -
Shuaib M, Ullah N, Hafeez A, et al. Effect of dietary supplementation of wild cumin (Bunium persicum) seeds on performance, nutrient digestibility and circulating metabolites in broiler chicks during the finisher phase. Animal Biotechnology 2022;33(5):871-5. https://doi.org/10.1080/10495398.2020.1844222
» https://doi.org/10.1080/10495398.2020.1844222 -
Surai PF, Kochish II, Fisinin VI, et al. Antioxidant defence systems and oxidative stress in poultry biology: An update. Antioxidants 2021;10:235. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10020235
» https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10020235 -
Ul Saqib N, Islam Z, Sultan A, et al. Effect of dried orange (Citrus sinensis) pulp on growth performance, serum biochemical parameters, and nutrient digestibility in broiler chickens. Pakistan Journal of Zoology 2025;57(1):123-32. https://doi.org/10.17582/journal.pjz/20230803122156
» https://doi.org/10.17582/journal.pjz/20230803122156 -
Ullah A, Khan S, Shuaib M, et al. Effect of liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) on growth performance, gut morphometry, and economics of broilers production. Pakistan Journal of Zoology 2023;56(5):2039-46. https://doi.org/10.17582/journal.pjz/20221227071205
» https://doi.org/10.17582/journal.pjz/20221227071205 -
Ullah I, Ullah R, Shuaib M, et al. Effect of supplementation of papaya seed (Carica papaya) on growth performance, carcass traits, and histomorphology of Japanese quails. Pakistan Journal of Zoology 2025;57(4):1999-2002. https://doi.org/10.17582/journal.pjz/20230824082655
» https://doi.org/10.17582/journal.pjz/20230824082655
T0 = control group with no treatment; T1 = receiving Phyllanthus niruri + vitamin B complex + vitamin C at the level of 1 g/L of drinking water; T2 = receiving Phyllanthus niruri + vitamin B complex + vitamin C at the level of 2 g/L of drinking water; T3 = receiving Phyllanthus niruri + vitamin B complex + vitamin C at the level of 3 g/L of drinking water; and T4 = receiving Phyllanthus niruri + vitamin B complex + vitamin C at the level of 4 g/L of drinking water.
