Does sleep behavior influence the perceptions of burnout in flag football athletes?ABSTRACT
The aim of the study was to analyze the ability of sleep behavior to predict burnout in flag football athletes. 83 flag football athletes participated in the study. Descriptive statistics were used and simple linear regression tests were performed. A total of 79.51% of athletes showed poor sleep behavior. Regarding the dimensions of burnout, athletes presented low frequencies of feelings. Sleep behavior was a positive and significant predictor of physical and emotional exhaustion. It concludes that the most athletes showed poor sleep behavior, but low perception of burnout. Poor sleep behavior can predict a slight increase in the perception of physical and emotional exhaustion.
Keywords:
Sleep quality; Psychological stress; Mental health; Recovery
RESUMO
O objetivo do estudo foi analisar a capacidade do comportamento do sono em predizer burnout em atletas de flag football. Participaram do estudo 83 atletas de flag football. Foram utilizadas estatísticas descritivas e realizados testes de regressão linear simples. Um total de 79,51% dos atletas apresentou mau comportamento de sono. Em relação às dimensões do burnout, os atletas apresentaram baixas frequências de sentimentos. O comportamento do sono foi um preditor positivo e significativo para exaustão física e emocional. Conclui-se que a maioria dos atletas apresentou mau comportamento de sono, mas baixa percepção de burnout. O mau comportamento do sono pode prever um pequeno aumento na percepção de exaustão física e emocional.
Palavras-chave:
Qualidade de sono; Estresse psicológico; Saúde mental; Recuperação
RESUMEN
El objetivo del estudio fue analizar la capacidad de la conducta del sueño para predecir el burnout en deportistas de fútbol de bandera. Participaron en el estudio 83 deportistas. Se utilizó estadística descriptiva y se realizaron pruebas de regresión lineal simple. El 79,51% de los deportistas presentaron malas conductas de sueño. En cuanto a las dimensiones del burnout, los deportistas presentaron bajas frecuencias de sentimientos. El comportamiento del sueño fue un predictor positivo y significativo del agotamiento físico y emocional. Se concluye que la mayoría de los deportistas mostraron un mal comportamiento de sueño, pero una baja percepción de agotamiento. Un mal comportamiento del sueño puede predecir un leve aumento en la percepción de agotamiento físico y emocional.
Palabras clave:
Calidad de sueño; Estrés psicológico; Salud mental; Recuperación
INTRODUCTION
Safeguarding the mental health of athletes is a first order theme in the sports environment. Given the post pandemic context, burnout is considered one of the main sources of concern in competitive sport (Pires et al., 2024). Burnout is a reaction to chronic stress. This syndrome in the sporting context is characterized by three dimensions: physical and emotional exhaustion; sports devaluation; and reduced sense of accomplishment (Raedeke, 1997).
Stressors result in short-term tension, such as cardiovascular activation and fatigue, or long-term tension, such as exhaustion (Sonnentag, 2018). Therefore, recovery processes can alleviate short-term tensions to prevent the harm of long-term well-being (Sonnentag, 2018). Recovery refers to processes of physical and psychological restoration over time (Kellmann et al., 2018). In the context of sports, the recovery processes include psychological detachment from the activity, the practice of physical exercise and adequate levels of sleep (Gerber et al., 2020; Sonnentag, 2018).
Among the various recovery processes, the impact of sleep on recovery has received attention in the context of sports because sleep plays a key role in recovery and physical, psychological and cognitive health. Given this context, athletes face stresses related to performance, training and competitions that increase the risk of sleep disorders (Cook and Charest, 2023). In addition, athletes have difficulty falling asleep after competition and make frequent use of stimulants during competition (Cameron et al., 2021). As a consequence, poor sleep quality is positively associated with psychological disorders, such as depression, anxiety and stress, in elite athletes (Facer-Childs et al., 2022). Relatively low levels of physical recovery and high levels of stress are observed in elite athletes (Doherty et al., 2021). Thus, high levels of stress and poor recovery predict mental health problems, such as depressive symptoms, insomnia and burnout (Gerber et al., 2018).
The occurrence of burnout syndrome may be linked to inadequate recovery to address the stressors of sports demands over time, which can make it chronic (Almén et al., 2020). In this context, athletes who have clinically relevant symptoms of burnout spend less time in bed during the week and have higher rates of insomnia and cognitive dysfunction that are linked to poor sleep quality than athletes without these symptoms (Gerber et al., 2018).
Flag football is an adaptation of American football that aims to minimize physical contact during games and reduce the likelihood of injuries by replacing traditional tackles with the removal of flags attached to the players' waists. This characteristic makes the sport safer and more inclusive, allowing individuals of different ages and skill levels to participate (Locke et al., 2025). However, despite being a safer variation, flag football still imposes significant physical and psychological demands on athletes. Although the sport is expanding, especially with its inclusion in the 2028 Olympic Games, there is still a lack of studies addressing its psychophysiological demands. Thus, understanding sleep as a recovery process that can interfere with burnout symptoms is relevant for the early identification and adoption of interventions aimed at the physical and psychological well-being of these athletes. In contrast, ignoring the first signs of lack of adaptation to training and lack of long-term recovery can contribute to the emergence of burnout (Pires et al., 2024).
Therefore, the objective of the present study was to analyse the ability of sleep behavior to predict the burnout dimensions in flag football athletes.
The hypothesis of the present study is that sleep behavior is a significant predictor of the three dimensions of burnout syndrome in flag football athletes.
METHODS
Sample
For the sample size determination, we employed a statistical power of 80%, an effect size of 0.27, and an α of 0.05. This calculation indicated a minimum sample size requirement of 81 participants. The software utilized for this analysis was G*Power version 3.1. The choice of the effect size f=0.27 for the sample size calculation was based on the classifications proposed by Cohen (1988), who defined values of 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35 as small, medium, and large effects, respectively. In the absence of prior studies directly comparable to ours, we opted for an intermediate value between medium and large effect sizes, assuming that the predictor variable would have a moderate impact on the outcome. This choice aimed to ensure adequate statistical power to detect relevant effects within the clinical/experimental context of the study. The calculation also considered practical limitations due to the limited number of athletes participating in the sport of flag football
The inclusion criteria were: consent to participate in the study, status as a flag athlete, and not using psychotropic medications. Participants were excluded if they failed to respond to any item or provided contradictory responses.
A total of 83 flag football athletes (48 men and 35 women) with a mean age of 28.42 ± 5.61 years old participated in the study. The number of athletes was in agreement with the sample size calculated. The participating athletes were competitors in the Supercopa do Brasil de Flag Football, the premier national competition in the sport, which brings together the champions and runners-up from the North, Northeast, Central-West, South, and Southeast regions of Brazil. All participants were flag football athletes, with a mean time of practice of 48 ± 6.51 months, a mean training frequency of 2 ± 1.38 times a week and training session durations of 180 ± 73.87 minutes.
Procedures
Initially, one researcher contacted the technicians of the flag football teams to ask for authorization and support to conduct the study and to determine its importance and practical implications. The guidelines were given by video calls. A link to the questionnaires was then provided on Google Forms to the representatives of the teams via WhatsApp, with a supporting text describing the nature of the study, the contact number of one researcher to answer any questions and a brief explanation of the content contained in the link. The technical representatives of the teams were responsible for explaining the benefits and directions to the athletes. In addition, the platform provided additional information about the objectives of the study and the risks and benefits. The athletes who agreed to participate first signed the Free and Informed Consent Form (FICF) and then completed questionnaires about sleep behavior and burnout. The link was available for four weeks to complete the form. This study was approved by the RESEARCH ETHICS COMMITTEE.
Data collection was carried out at the end of the 2023 season. The questionnaires, designed using the Google Forms platform, were made available to participants over a 30-day period, encompassing the 15 days prior to and the 15 days following the Supercopa do Brasil de Flag Football.
Instruments
A sociodemographic questionnaire composed of personal and professional questions was used to characterize the sample. Various questions, such as name/initials, sex, years of practice in the modality, duration of each training session, and use or absence of psychotropic drugs, were completed by the participants.
The Athlete Sleep Behavior Questionnaire (ASBQ-BR) was used to assess sleep behavior (Facundo et al., 2021). The scale was adapted to Portuguese to assess information related to the sleep habits of athletes. The questionnaire consisted of 18 items, including questions related to sleep hygiene habits considered to be of concern to athletes and related to their sleep behavior. The questions were divided into 3 factors: routine and environmental factors (i.e., “I took afternoon naps that lasted two or more hours”), behavioral factors (i.e., “I used stimulants to train/compete, such as caffeine”), and sports-related factors (i.e., “I exercised, trained or competed, late at night/after 7 pm”). The responses were scored according to the frequency of the specific behaviors exhibited, based on a scale from 1=never to 5=always. Scores less than or equal to 36 indicated “good sleep behavior”, scores above 42 represented “poor sleep behavior”, and scores between 36 and 42 indicated “moderate sleep behavior”. The reliability of the questionnaire was also considered acceptable, with an intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) of 0.857 and Cronbach’s α of 0.78, as reported in the original validation study by Facundo et al. (2021). Other versions of the instrument are available (e.g., French, Japanese and Turkish) that have been used in studies in the field (Baize et al., 2023; Tsukahara et al., 2023).
To measure the dimensions of burnout syndrome, the Brazilian version of the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ) was used (Pires et al., 2006). The ABQ consisted of 15 items that assessed the frequency of feelings related to burnout syndrome. Each item referred to a dimension of burnout syndrome: physical and emotional exhaustion (i.e., “I am exhausted by the physical and emotional demands of sport”), a reduced sense of accomplishment (i.e., “No matter what I do, I do not perform as I should”) and sport devaluation (i.e., “I have negative feelings about sports”). Responses are given on a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (almost never) to 5 (almost always) points. The results for the perception of symptoms were obtained from the arithmetic mean of the responses given for each dimension. The reliability of the instrument was considered satisfactory, with a Cronbach's α of 0.82. An analysis of the psychometric properties assigned the effectiveness of the instrument and allowed its use in athletes and professionals for the precise evaluation of the main symptoms of burnout in brazilian athletes (Sousa et al., 2021).
Statistical analysis
The analysis was performed using the mean, median, minimum, maximum and percentile values to verify the descriptive data of the sample and the variables involved. For this study, we used the global score of the ASBQ-BR, which is calculated by summing the items. Thus, the higher the score, the poorer the sleep behavior. A simple linear regression test was used to determine whether sleep behavior was a significant predictor of each of the three dimensions of burnout (physical and emotional exhaustion, sports devaluation and reduced sense of accomplishment). To analyse the reliability of the model, assumptions from statistical tests and visual analysis of graphs were used. The normality of the residues was verified through a quantile–quantile (QQ) graph. Moreover, homogeneity of variance was verified by a plot of the residues against the fitted values. The Durbin–Watson test was used to measure the independence of the residues, while the absence of outliers was analysed using the Cook distance. All model criteria were met in the three regressions, which guaranteed the validity and robustness of the analyses.
The software used was Jeffrey’s Amazing Statistics Program (JASP) version 0.18.3.0, and the significance value adopted was alpha < 0.05.
RESULTS
Table 1 shows the distribution of participants according to the categories of sleep behavior, indicating a low prevalence of good sleep behavior and a high prevalence of poor sleep behavior.
Table 2 presents the descriptive data of the burnout dimensions. Regarding this variable, athletes have low perceptions of burnout syndrome because the frequencies of feelings vary from “rarely” to “sometimes”. The dimension “reduced sense of accomplishment” is a more common dimension than the other two dimensions.
The results of the simple linear regression for sleep behavior and the dimensions of burnout can be found in Table 3.
Sleep behavior was reported to be a significant predictor of physical and emotional exhaustion (F [1.81] = 5.80, p < 0.05). However, its predictive capacity was limited, explaining only 6.70% of the variance (R2 = 0.067). The regression coefficient B shows that for every one-unit increase in poor sleep quality, there is an increase of 0.03 on the physical and emotional exhaustion scale (95% CI [0.005, 0.056], t (81) = 2.41, p < 0.05).
Sleep behavior is not a significant predictor of the following dimensions: reduced sense of accomplishment and sport devaluation (p>0.05).
DISCUSSION
The objective of the present study was to analyse the ability of sleep behavior to predict the burnout dimensions in flag football athletes. Athletes have a high prevalence of poor sleep behavior. There is a low frequency of feelings related to the three dimensions of burnout. Our hypothesis was partially supported, as sleep behavior significantly predicted only the physical and emotional exhaustion dimension of burnout. However, its predictive power was low.
Regarding sleep behavior, almost 80% of the participants show poor sleep behavior. Some factors of the professional sports context may influence poor sleep quality, such as precompetition preoccupation, late night game schedules and post competition psychological distress due to negative results (Cook and Charest, 2023). In addition, the effects of the athletes’ routine, such as the impacts of long-distance trips or sleeping in different places, can interfere with the synchronization between their biological clock and their environment, in addition to discomfort during transport, which can generate fatigue and sleep disturbances (Doherty et al., 2023).
Regarding burnout syndrome, although a reduced sense of accomplishment in sports is the most common dimension, the athletes do not have high scores, with frequencies of feelings ranging from “rarely” to “sometimes” for the three dimensions. These low levels of perception can be explained by the theory of Self-Determination (Deci and Ryan, 2013), in which the low levels of burnout dimensions may result from high levels of intrinsic motivation, and in such a manner that the impulse to engage results from the internal interest, satisfaction and reward inherent to the activity that athletes practice, thus reducing burnout and interfering with the other domains (Graña et al., 2021). Another theory that may explain this low perception is the “healthy worker effect”, which suggests that highly exhausted athletes can leave their sports career and, therefore, not be a part of the sample used in most studies (Russell, 2021).
Sleep behavior predicts the perception of physical and emotional exhaustion dimension in flag football athletes; thus, the worse the sleep quality is, the greater the perception of this dimension. However, this relationship demonstrated a low predictive value. Furthermore, the high prevalence of inadequate sleep behavior coupled with low levels of perceived burnout suggests that poor sleep behavior may exert only a marginal influence on the development of burnout in this population. This marginal relationship can be explained by the fact that recovery is linked to processes of physical and psychological restoration over time (Kellmann et al., 2018). In this sense, the items that assess physical and emotional exhaustion may be directly related to sleep (Allen et al., 2021), for example, questions that indicate a lack of adequate recovery (“I am exhausted by the mental and physical demands of sport” and “I feel extremely tired with my participation in the sport”).
Despite the limited body of research on flag football, it is essential to account for the sport’s specific demands when analyzing the relationship between sleep behavior and physical and emotional exhaustion. Flag football presents physiological and cognitive characteristics comparable to other intermittent field-based sports, such as rugby, which are recognized for imposing substantial physical and cognitive loads on athletes (Till et al., 2017). An increased training load in an athlete’s routine may impair sleep quality due to heightened sympathetic nervous system activity and elevated circulating cortisol levels, as well as the presence of muscle soreness and frequent nocturnal urination resulting from hydration strategies (Roberts et al., 2019).
Thus, it is suggested that the high prevalence of poor sleep behavior among athletes, in the face of such demands, may contribute to the development of physical and mental exhaustion. Physical effects can include decreased running performance, decreased muscle glycogen concentration and submaximal reductions in strength and ventilation per minute, distance walked and sprint times, while cognitive effects include decreased psychomotor functions, increased reaction time and mental confusion (Vitale et al., 2019). Thus, it is important to clarify the impacts on the aspects of physical performance, mental performance and the risk of injuries to athletes due to poor sleep (Vlahoyiannis et al., 2021). Thus, it is suggested that sports clubs and institutions implement strategies to mitigate issues related to sleep behavior, aiming to improve physical performance and the well-being and mental health of athletes (Charest and Grandner, 2020).
The present study has some limitations, such as the online application of the forms, which may have influenced the participants’ interpretations. However, this approach makes it possible to reach athletes from several Brazilian states, expanding the scope of the study. Some aspects of sleep, such as sleep duration, have not been examined, which may be a limiting factor in the evaluation of sleep quality in flag football athletes. However, the instrument used shows good reliability, which provides some support for this construct. It is recommended that future studies adopt a longitudinal approach, performing data collection before, during and after competitions, aiming to establish relationships between the variables studied since this study presents a cross-sectional methodology related to this population.
Despite these limitations, the present study provides evidence that flag football athletes have poor sleep quality, which may contribute to a slight increase in the perception of physical and emotional exhaustion. These findings serve as a warning for coaches, committees, physicians, sports psychologists and management teams to collaborate and build actions aimed at education on sleep hygiene in athletes and on strategies that can improve sleep quality. Thus, there is an improvement not only in sports performance but also in the physical, mental and social well-being of the athlete.
CONCLUSION
In summary, flag football athletes exhibit high levels of poor sleep behavior, although they do not have high perceptions of burnout dimensions. Poor sleep behavior makes a small contribution to the development of physical and emotional exhaustion, indicating that the poorer the sleep quality, the greater the chance of developing these symptoms of exhaustion.
DATA AVAILABILITY
Not applicable.
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FUNDING
This study was financed in part by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - Brasil (CAPES) - Finance Code 001.The translation of the article into English was funded by the Universidade Federal do Pará (UFPA/PROPESP/PAPQ).
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Edited by
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Editors:
Leonardo Alexandre Peyré Tartaruga, André Ivaniski Mello, Jhennifer Luiza Machado Pimenta.
Publication Dates
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Publication in this collection
10 Nov 2025 -
Date of issue
2025
History
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Received
29 May 2024 -
Accepted
10 Aug 2025
