Nori species (Rhodophyta, Bangiales): a brief review of nutritional and economic potential in Brazil¹

ABSTRACT

The species Porphyra, Pyropia, and Neopyropia are widely cultivated and consumed worldwide due their valuable nutraceutical properties. These red algae are rich in essential macronutrients, including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and minerals. They also contain bioproducts beneficial to human health, such as pigments (phycobiliproteins), phenolic compounds, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), and polysaccharides, which exhibit antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and anti-obesity activities. These algae are particularly important as edible seaweeds, being most notably used in the production of Nori. This review examines recent research on the nutritional value of Nori species, based on 17 selected articles. The data were organized according to protein, carbohydrate, lipid, and ash content. Additionally, we explore the bioactive compounds found in these species, such as pigments, fatty acids, and phenolic compounds. Our discussion also emphasizes the economic potential of Nori in Brazil. Despite the country's rich biodiversity, Brazil remains a major importer of algae for human consumption. However, there is significant potential for expanding its presence in the aquaculture sector, creating opportunities for the cultivation of Nori species. These growing prospects could pave the way for the sustainable exploitation of this resource in both national and global markets.

Keywords:
Nori; Rhodophyta ; Nutraceutical potential; Food bioproducts

INTRODUCTION

Seaweed, or marine macroalgae, has traditionally been consumed as a food source in various civilizations, particularly in Asia, in countries such as China, Korea, and Japan, where it continues to be a significant part of the daily diet (Mchugh, 2003). As an important category within novel foods, seaweed is increasingly included in diets due to its numerous health benefits (Ainsa et al., 2022). Seaweed is notable for its exceptionally rich nutritional profile, which includes fiber, polyunsaturated fatty acids, vitamins, minerals, and substantial protein content. Additionally, the bioactive compounds found in seaweed such as polysaccharides, proteins, polyphenols, carotenoids, and omega-3 fatty acids make it a valuable resource for the functional food industry (Ainsa et al., 2022; Cherry et al., 2019).

Rhodophyta (red seaweeds) are composed of 80% to 90% water. When dried, they contain approximately 50% carbohydrates, 7% to 3 8% minerals, and 1% to 3% lipophilic compounds, as well as along smaller quantities of phenolic and vitamin compounds (García-Casal et al., 2007). The protein content varies significantly, ranging from 10% to 47%, and includes high levels of essential amino acids vital for human nutrition. Additionally, red algae are rich sources of both soluble vitamins (B1, B2, B3, B5, B12, and C) and insoluble vitamins (A, E, D, and K). They also provide essential minerals such as calcium (Ca), potassium (K), sodium (Na), iodine (I), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), and others, along with essential amino acids (Trindade et al., 2016). In particular, the genera Porphyra/Pyropia/Neopyropia, belonging to the order Bangiales, are remarkable for their complex taxonomy. This complexity is due to factors such as the high number of species with widespread distribution, simple morphology with limited characters for species discrimination, phenotypic plasticity, and the presence of cryptic species (Milstein; Oliveira, 2005). These red algae are especially significant for their use as edible seaweeds, most notably in the production of Nori, a popular food in Asian cuisine. Dried Nori species contains numerous nutritional and biofunctional components and has been utilized both as food and for pharmacological purposes (Cao et al., 2016; Zhongzhong; Jianguang; Huashi, 2009). Nori is widely consumed across Asia, often featured in soups, salads, sushi wraps, and snacks (Duarte; Bruhn; Krause-Jensen, 2022). Beyond direct consumption, Nori can be processed into food additives or supplements (Duarte; Bruhn; Krause-Jensen, 2022; FAO, 2018).

Additionally, during the current Oceans Decade (2021-2030), the significance of these algae transcends sustainability. They intertwine with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) established by the United Nations, including SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), SDG 12 (Responsible Production and Consumption), SDG 13 (Climate Action), and SDG 14 (Life Below Water) (Cai et al., 2021; Spillias, Bruhn, Krause-Jensen, 2022; Spillias et al., 2022).

This article reviews the current landscape of the nutritional aspects of Nori algae (Porphyra, Pyropia, Neopyropia). The main goal is to provide a comprehensive review of the nutraceutical potential of various species within these genera. Our analysis reveals the potential of species that could be explored in Brazil, highlighting their economic value and viability for commercial exploitation as a fishery resource.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The literature search was conducted using the Web of Science database, covering the period from 2016 to early 2024. The search focused on the descriptors "Porphyra and nutritional value," "Pyropia and nutritional value," and "Neopyropia and nutritional value," refined using the operator "AND" with the terms enclosed in quotation marks. Only English-language studies addressing the nutraceutical potential of Nori algae were included.

A total of 17 articles were screened and evaluated based on their titles and abstracts, following a rigorous selection process that prioritized studies with quantitative data. The selected studies were thoroughly analyzed and systematically organized to create a comprehensive overview of the Porphyra, Pyropia, and Neopyropia genera (Rhodophyta, Bangiales). This methodology aimed to synthesize current knowledge, highlight key findings, and identify areas needing further research on the nutraceutical potential of Nori algae, providing valuable support for professionals in natural product chemistry and related fields.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The bibliographic search, using the keywords "Porphyra and nutritional value," "Pyropia and nutritional value," and "Neopyropia and nutritional value," resulted in the selection of 17 articles for this study. Duplicate articles and those not aligned with the study's scope and objectives were excluded.

This review examined 25 species of Nori algae (Porphyra/Pyropia/Neopyropia spp.), with Porphyra being the most studied genus (55%), followed by Pyropia (25%) and Neopyropia (15%). The most researched species were Porphyra dioica (15%), P. tenera (10%), P. umbilicalis (10%), Pyropia columbina (10%), and Neopyropia yezoensis (15%) (Figure 1A). It is important to highlight that species within these genera are under continuous taxonomic evaluation and reconsideration due to their cosmopolitan distribution and biological plasticity (Yang et al., 2020).

Figure 1
Nori species were studied between 2014 and 2024 for their nutraceutical potential. A. Representative images of the most studied species (Porphyra dioica, P. tenera, P. umbilicalis, Pyropia columbina and Neopyropia yezoensis) identified in the review. B. Registration of places of origin of macroalgae in studies on the nutritional potential of Nori algae from 2014 onwards

The biomass in these studies primarily originated from natural banks (76.47%), with additional sources including offshore cultivation (17.65%) and multitrophic cultivation (IMTA) (11.76%). The macroalgae were sourced from various countries across Europe, Asia, and South America, with Portugal (23.53%) and China (17.65%) being the most significant contributors and hosting the majority of studies (Figure 1B).

Nutraceutical potential

The red seaweed of Porphyra, Pyropia and Neopyropia were analyzed for its nutritional value, including fatty acid profile, protein, carbohydrate, lipid and ash content (Kavale et al., 2018). Table 1 presents the nutritional composition of the different Nori seaweed from the reviewed articles.

Table 1
Nutritional composition of the different Nori seaweed (Porphyra, Pyropia and Neopyropia)

Specie				Content % Dry weight (DW)
	Ash	Carbohydrate	Lipids	Proteine	Country	Source	Reference
P. dioica	19.2 ± 0.01	12.9 ± 0.20	1.92 ± 0.15	23.9 ± 0.23	Portugal	EVITA (commercial font)	FERREIRA et al. (2022)
P. dioica	NR	NR	NR	NR	Portugal	EVITA (commercial font)	COSTA et al. (2018)
P. dioica	NR	57.48 ± 1.76	NR	4.79 ± 0.08	Ireland	Natural bank	STACK et al. (2017)
Porphyra sp.	NR	NR	NR	39.7	Norway	Natural bank	GAILLARD et al. (2018)
Porphyra sp.	NR	NR	NR	NR	South Korea	Natural bank	YANG et al. (2020)
Porphyra sp.	22.31 ± 0.38	17.59 ± 0.27	8.88 ± 0.05	9.71–24.82	Portugal	Natural bank	PAIVA et al. (2014)
Porphyra sp.	8.49 ± 0.08	58.74 ± 0.73	0.73 ± 0.05	27.40 ± 0.69	Peru	Natural bank	ARAKAKI et al. (2023)
P. tenera	NR	NR	NR	2.9	Spain	Natural bank (commercial font)	AINSA et al. (2022)
P. tenera	NR	NR	0.36 ± 0.11	28.61 ± 1.38	Thailand	Commercial font	BRASPAIBOON et al. (2022)
P. umbilicalis	16.38 ± 0.93	31.89	0.75	18.27± 0.19	Portugal	Natural bank	FREITAS et al. (2022)
P. columbina	10.0± 3.3	ND	ND	8.33 ± 1.6	Argentina	Natural bank	MONZÓN et al. (2022)
P. columbina	NR	NR	NR	NR	Chile	Natural bank	ASTORGA-ESPAÑA et al. (2017)
Pyropia haitanensis	NR	NR	NR	36.6 (Red-brown strain) and 39.8 (green strain)	China	Natural Bank	XU et al. (2020)
Pyropia sp.	9.07 ± 0.10	62.70 ± 0.58	0.87 ± 0.11	28.91 ± 1.15	Peru	Natural bank	ARAKAKI et al. (2023)
P. vietnamensis	7.4 ± 0.8	60.36 ± 0.94	2.7 ± 0.1	20.5 ± 0.35	India	Natural Bank	KAVALE et al. (2018)
N. haitanensis	16.53 ± 0.66	22.40 ± 0.65	0.66 ± 0.02	30.50 ± 0.20	China	Offshore cultivation	LIANG et al. (2022)
N. yezoensis	15.38 ± 0.21	28.47 ± 1.03	0.74 ± 0.03	41.38 ± 0.04	China	Offshore cultivation	LIANG et al. (2022)
N. yezoensis	12.2 ± 0.1 (High quality) and 2.5 ± 2.0 (Low quality)	NR	NR	54.0 ± 2.2 (High quality) and, 24.8 ± 5.2 (Low quality)	Japan	Natural bank (commercial font)	MURAYAMA et al. (2020)
N. yezoensis	NR	NR	NR	17.5 - 47.5	China	Offshore cultivation	HUANG et al. (2023)

• The gathered information refers to the highest values reported when the study cited the same parameter for the same species, albeit at different times or at different collection locations

The nutritional analysis of Porphyra, Pyropia, and Neopyropia species revealed varied ash and carbohydrate content. Specifically, Porphyra sp. showed an ash content of 22.31 ± 0.38% DW (Arakaki et al., 2023; Paiva et al., 2014), Porphyra dioica 19.2 ± 0.01% DW (Ferreira et al., 2022), Porphyra umbilicalis 16.38 ± 0.93% DW (Freitas et al., 2022), Neopyropia haitanensis 12.25 ± 0.21 - 16.53 ± 0.66 (Liang et al., 2022) and N. yezoensis 12.2 ± 0.1 ± 0.15 - 15.38 ± 0.21 (Liang et al., 2022; Murayama et al., 2020). All analysed species exhibited lower ash content compared to the average reported for tropical seaweeds (41–45%, average 43%) (Ferreira et al., 2022; Neto et al., 2018; Tibbetts; Milley; Lall, 2016). The variations in ash content may be attributed to the collection season and location, with environmental conditions playing a crucial role. This highlights the potential for studying controlled cultivation conditions, such as multitrophic systems, to enhance mineral content. Notably, ash content referred to as fixed mineral residue represents inorganic minerals, contributing significantly to the nutritional value of mineral-rich foods (Redden et al., 2017).

The highest carbohydrate content was observed in Pyropia sp. 62.70 ± 0.58% DW (Arakaki et al., 2023), P. vietnamensis 60.36 ± 0.94% DW (Kavale et al., 2018) and Porphyra sp. 58.74 ± 0.73% DW (Arakaki et al., 2023; Paiva et al., 2014). Arakaki et al. (2023), noted that red macroalgae from the Bangiales (59.85%) and Gigartinales (58.73%) orders had higher median carbohydrate content compared to other orders (50.23% to 53.87%), confirming their exceptional carbohydrate levels. This high carbohydrate content in red algae is linked to the production of polysaccharides such as agar and carrageenans, which are widely utilized in food products as thickeners, gelling agents, and emulsion stabilizers, as well as for their biological activities (Tiwari; Troy, 2015).

Regarding fiber content, the species Porphyra tenera presented a content of 4.52 ± 0.28g.100g^-1 (Braspaiboon et al., 2022). The effect of incorporating P. tenera into pasta increased the soluble fiber content by 0.92% compared to the control, improving the nutritional profile (Ainsa et al., 2022). Previous studies have shown a fiber content of 6.8% DW for this same species (Burtin, 2003; Zaragozano; Asín, 2019). Adding Pyropia columbina seaweed powder at 6.0% concentration in gluten-free pasta formulation increased total dietary fiber by 50% and ash content by 150%, while maintaining the quality characteristics required for consumer acceptance (Monzón et al., 2022). The fiber content ranged from 1.3 ± 0.4 to 18.9 ± 0.3% when a powder blend of three algae including the P. columbina species were used as ingredients in food such as bread, hamburgers, fettuccine, huiro fritters, huiro breadsticks, and luche-parsley pesto (Astorga-España et al., 2017). Red algae, in particular, are known for their high concentration of dietary fiber and polyphenols, which contribute to their moderate digestibility.

One of the most commonly requested chemical analyses in food composition is the determination of protein content. Protein is a fundamental nutrient that is essential for life due to its crucial function in the body (Braspaiboon et al., 2022). Higher protein levels were recorded or the species N. yezoensis (54.0 ± 2.2% DW) (Murayama et al., 2020), N. haitanensis (30.50 ± 0.20% DW) (Liang et al., 2022), Porphyra dioica (23.9 ± 0.23% DW) (Ferreira et al., 2022) and Porphyra tenera (28.61 ± 1.38% DW) (Braspaiboon et al., 2022). Murayama et al. (2020) investigated the appropriate fermentation conditions to enhance the active flavor components of Nori when mixed with Nori koji. They demonstrated a clear increase in protein content (free amino acid content) of Nori and a modification in the taste score by aging the culture with Nori koji. The data of the studied species fall within the protein content range of some previously recorded values ranges for algae (33% to 47%) (Braspaiboon et al., 2022), which is higher than the average vegetable protein.

The literature indicates that red algae possess significant amounts of protein that can be fulfill essential amino acid (EAA) and non-essential amino acids (NEAA), thus enabling their use in food to diversify the protein source in the human diet (Arakaki et al., 2023). The highest levels of total amino acids (TAA) were recorded for the species P. tenera 1000 mg. g^-1. In the composition of EAA, the following stand out; Isoleucine (89.80 mg. g^-1), leucine (127.47 mg. g^-1) and lysine (141.11 mg. g^-1). For NEAA, the highest recorded contents of amino acids were tyrosine (97.60 mg. g^-1), glutamic acid (78.92 mg. g^-1), aspartic acid (54.48 mg. g^-1) and alanine (73.14 mg. g^-1) (Braspaiboon et al., 2022).

The Porphyra spp. showed a TAA content of 466.5 mg. g^-1 of TAA. The highest average concentrations of amino acids were recorded for arginine (14.2 ± 1.0 mg. g^–1) and leucine (18.9 ± 1.3 mg. g^–1) (Arakaki et al., 2023). The species Pyropia spp. presented a TAA content of 454.6 mg. g^-1. Among the EAA, leucine (20.9 mg. g^-1), valine (18.9 mg. g^-1), threonine (17.0 mg. g^-1) stands out. For NEAA, alanine (37.5 mg. g^-1), glutamic acid (35.7 mg. g^-1) and aspartic acid (31.3 mg. g^-1) were prominent (Arakaki et al., 2023). The are similar to those reported for Nori species, including Porphyra acanthophora, Porphyra columbina, Porphyra dioica, Porphyra purpurea, and Pyropia umbilicalis (Arakaki et al., 2023; Dawczynski; Schubert; Jahreis, 2007; Lourenço et al., 2002; Nisizawa et al., 1987).

The seaweeds in this study are rich in glutamic and aspartic acids. These acidic amino acids, responsible for the typical umami taste of the seaweeds, together reach up to 23% of total amino acids in red algae. Both tissue nitrogen and the amino acid composition of seaweeds can be influenced by the nitrogen content of the environment, resulting in high individual variations (Biancarosa et al., 2017). Therefore, studying and improving natural and cultivation conditions to obtain a balanced amino acid profile is important, as a balanced profile of EAA defines (in part) the quality of a protein.

Lipids, a class of organic biomolecules, play a fundamental role in human physiology by serving as a concentrated source of energy, providing structural components for cell membranes, and acting as precursors to important biochemical mediators (Santos et al., 2023). Balanced intake of lipids, in appropriate quantities and in combination with other essential nutrients such as vitamins, carbohydrates, proteins, and minerals, is crucial to ensure optimal body function.

The lipid profile of seaweed varies significantly among different species, requiring specific evaluation to understand their potential for industrial application, whether as food ingredients or dietary supplements. Factors such as geolocation and exposure to different abiotic (e.g., temperature, salinity, pH, wave exposure, light, nutrient availability) and biotic factors (e.g., herbivory) can result in different biochemical profiles within the same species. Changes in fatty acid profiles, in particular, are of notable interest from a human nutritional perspective (Shin et al., 2013). Seaweed lipids are regarded as a source of valuable compounds for both food and pharmaceutical products, and have been extensively studied worldwide (Costa et al., 2018). In the species monitored in this study, lipid content ranged from 0.2 – 0.75% DW.

Table 2 Amino acids content of Nori species (Porphyra, Pyropya, and Neophyropia)

Genus	Specie	EAA (mg. g-1)	NEAA (mg. g-1)	TAA (mg. g-1)	Reference
Por	Porphyra sp.	51.0	33.1	84.1	GAILLARD et al. (2018)
	Porphyra spp.	466.5	NR	466.5	ARAKAKI et al. (2023)
	P. tenera	588.73	411.27	1000	BRASPAIBOON et al. (2022)
Pyr	Pyropia spp.	454.6	NR	454.6	ARAKAKI et al. (2023)
	P. haitanensis	75.78 ± 5.14 (Red-brown strain) and - 78.35 ± 5.43 (green strain)	152.39 ± 11.44 (Red-brown strain) and, 243.32 ± 11.33 (green strain)	228.17 ± 16.58 (Red-brown strain) and, 321.67 ± 16.76 (green strain)	XU et al. (2020)
Neo	N. yezoensis	142.7	272.57	01.0 ± 0.1	LIANG et al. (2022)
	N. yezoensis	NR	NR	49.43 ± 1.23 (Hight quality) and, 17.58 ± 1.52 (Low quality)	MURAYAMA et al. (2020)
	N. haitanensis	79.3	203.2	282.5 ± 0.6	LIANG et al. (2022)

EAA: Essential Amino Acids (His: Histidine; Ile: Isoleucine; Leu: Leucine; Lys: Lysine; Met: Methionine; Phe: Phenylalanine; Thr: Threonine; Val: Valine). NEAA: Non-Essential Amino Acids (Ala: Alanine; Asp: Aspartic Acid; Cys: Cysteine; Glu: Glutamic Acid; Gly: Glycine; Pro: Proline; Ser: Serine; Tyr: Tyrosine). TAA: Total Amino Acids. The gathered information refers to the highest values reported when the study cited the same parameter for the same species, albeit at different times or at different collection locations

These species have been consistently characterized by high protein and low-fat content, as evidenced in previous studies (Liang et al., 2022; Nhui-Gen et al., 2020). However, Porphyra sp. Showed a notably high lipid content of 8.88 ± 0.05% DW (Paiva et al., 2014). For this species, lipids content is higher in the winter and spring, and lower in summer with variation also influenced by geographical location and environmental conditions such as temperature, salinity, and nutrient content in the growth medium (Tiwari et al., 2015). The lipidomic profile of two phases of the life cycle of the Atlantic species.

Porphyra dioica (early stage concorcelis produced in an indoor nursery, and young slides produced outdoors using an IMTA aquaculture framework) allowed to identify the presence of glycerolipids such as monogalactosyl diacyl-glycerol and digalactosyl diacylglycerol, and the acidic sulfolipids sulfoquinovosyl diacylglycerol and the sulfoquinovosyl monoacylglycerol (Costa et al., 2018). These compounds offer significant insights into the potential bioactive properties of lipid extracts derived from P. dioica, thereby enhancing the valorization of these seaweeds.

Fatty acids (FAs) are linked to potential health benefits and have various biotechnological applications, in addition to serving as food and feed ingredients. They have been widely bioprospected worldwide (Costa et al., 2018; Leal et al., 2013). The FAs are commonly found in Nori species and play important roles in the biology of living organisms (Santos et al., 2023). Some studies have suggested that fatty acids from Porphyra, Pyropya, and Neopyropya species may have promising applications in both human and animal nutrition, as well as in industrial food production. Among the fatty acids identified in these species, notable ones include lauric acid, myristic acid, palmitic acid, linoleic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid and arachidonic acid, among others (Table 3).

Table 3
Fatty acids profiles of Nori species (Porphyra, Pyropya, and Neopyropya)

Fatty Acid	Notation	Concentration
Lauric Acid	C12:0	NR	NR	T	NR	6.54 ±0.51	NR	NR
Fridecanoic Acid	C13:0	NR	NR	3.27 ± 0.26	NR	2.54 ±0.67	NR	NR
Myristic Acid	C14:0	28.84 ± 0.83	0.71 ± 0.08	1.56 ± 0.12	3.24 ± 0.01	5.36 ±0.47	1.88 ± 0.01	0.94 ± 0.01
Fetradecanoic Acid	C14:l	NR	NR	0.74 ± 0.06	NR	5.81 ±3.66	NR	NR
Pentadecanoic Acid	C15:0	35.24 ± 0.13	NR	NR	NR	5.57 ±0.88	NR	NR
Pentadecenoic Acid	C15:l	NR	NR	NR	NR	1.58 ± 0.18	NR	NR
Palmitic Acid	C16:0	784.7 ± 21.1	35.96 ± 0.05	47.41 ± 3.5	37.27 ± 0.80	23.40 ±1.54	212.70 ± 4.84	180.62 ± 0.13
Hexadecanoic Acid (ω7)	C16:l	210.3 ± 5.06	0.97 ± 0.09	2.75 ± 0.22	18.82 ± 0.36	6.22 ±1.40	1.45 ± 0.0	0.80 ± 0.0
Stearic Acid	C18:0	52.26 ± 8.0	1.29 ± 0.03	2.08 ± 0.16	3.72 ± 2.71	5.75 ±2.33	8.30 ± 0.02	4.02 ± 0.05
Oleic Acid (ω9)	C18:l	366.1 ± 50.0	2.29 ± 0.05	8.65 ± 0.67	3.54 ± 0.09	13.65 ±0.98	20.77 ± 0.24	9.90 ± 0.02
Linoleic Acid (ω6)	C18:2	171.6 ± 18.6	2.93 ± 0.10	T	3.56 ± 0.42	5.33 ± 0.92	19.56 ± 0.21	9.07 ± 0.19
α-Linolenic Acid (ω3)	C18:3	16.62 ± 0.05	0.30 ± 0.17	5.37 ± 0.43	0.47 ± 0.06	4.88 ± 0.71	0.38 ± 0	0.44 ± 0.01
Eicosadienoic Acid (ω6)	C20:2	30.56 ± 2.70	NR	T	NR	14.56 ± 1.27	4.34 ± 0.03	4.91 ± 0.07
Arachidonic Acid (ω6)	C20:4	751.0 ± 87.3	25.13 ± 0.20	1.34 ± 0.11	29.46 ± 0.56	11.93 ± 1.97	8.28 ± 0.06	4.29 ± 0.01
Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA)	C20:5	579.5 ± 96.4	32.95 ± 0.28	T	46.46 ± 1.16	NR	256.44 ± 2.48a	412.32 ± 1.61
Docosanoic Acid	C23:0	NR	NR	ND	NR	8.08 ± 0.45	NR	NR
Σ SFAs (%)	33.59	25.20	44.94	54.32 ± 2.53	60.92 ± 7.6	39.33	41.64
Σ MUFAs (%)	10.83	26.50	27.53	17.31 ± 0.92	35.36 ± 6.76	NR	NR
Σ PUFAs (%)	57.86	48.30	59.83	24.96 ± 1.33	46.28 ± 3.47	60.57	58.36

• a: Concentration in g. 100g^-1. b: Concentration in mg.kg^-1. c: Concentration in % of methyl fatty acids esters. T: Compound identified in the trace. ND: Compound not detected. NR: Not Registered. Σ SFAs: Total saturated fatty acids. Σ MUFAs: Total monounsaturated fatty acids. Σ PUFAs: Total polyunsaturated fatty acids. The gathered information refers to the highest values reported when the study cited the same parameter for the same species, albeit at different times or at different collection locations

The total content of saturated fatty acids (SFAs) was highest in Pyropia vietnamensis 60.92% (Kavale et al., 2018), Pyropia sp. 54.32% (Arakaki et al., 2023) e Porphyra sp. with 44.94% (Arakaki et al., 2023). Despite the high SFAs content, ω6/ω3 ratio was found for P. vietnamensis was found to be within the recommended limit (i.e. <10) by the World Health Organization (WHO) (KAVALE et al., 2018). In terms of, monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs - with one double bond), the highest levels were recorded in the P. vietnamensis (35.36%) (Kavale et al., 2018), followed by 27.53% (Paiva et al., 2014) and Porphyra sp. 26.50% (Arakaki et al., 2023). At last, the content of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs - with two or up to six double bonds) was registered in high percentages for Porphyra sp. 59.83% (Paiva et al., 2014), Porphyra dioica 57.86% (Costa et al., 2018) and Porphyra sp. 48.30% (Arakaki et al., 2023).

It is important to highlight that among these compounds, PUFAs are of particular interest to the scientific community as they are essential due to their inability to be synthesized by the human body (Misurcová et al., 2011; Rocha et al., 2021). Linoleic acid (ω6) was found in higher concentrations in Neopyropya yezoensis (19.56 ± 0.21 g/100 g), Neopyropya haitanensis (9.07 ± 0.19 g/100 g) (Liang et al., 2022), and Pyropia vietnamensis (5.33 ± 0.92 g/100 g) (Kavale et al., 2018). The compound α-linolenic acid fatty ω3 was present in concentrations below 1.0 g/100 g, however Pyropia vietnamensis showed 4.88 ± 0.71 g/100 g (Kavale et al., 2018).

In addition, Pyropia vietnamensis exhibited 14.56 ± 1.27% eicosadienoic acid (ω6) (Kavale et al., 2018). Arakaki et al. (2023) reported high levels of the PUFAs arachidonic acid (ω6) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) in Pyropia sp. (29.46 ± 0.56 g/100 g and 46.46 ± 1.16 g/100 g, respectively) and Porphyra sp. (25.13 ± 0.20 g/100 g and 32.95 ± 0.28 g/100 g, respectively). Their study noted that arachidonic acid was found in high concentrations in both brown and red algae groups, including Porphyra sp. and Pyropia sp., while EPA was primarily found in the red algae group. Dawczynski, Schubert and Jahreis (2007) determined the fatty acid (FA) distributions of several seaweed species, including Porphyra sp. which recorded a ratio of 20.9% DW. From this table it could be concluded that the fatty acid composition varies significantly between different species of Nori. However, Porphyra, Pyropia and Neopyropia have good levels of FA such as EPA, which may suggest its potential as a commercial supply of PUFAs, assuming that biomass can be harnessed as a valuable nutritional resource.

Bioproducts with nutraceutical value

The chemical profile of Nori species reveals a significant nutraceutical potential warranting in-depth technical analysis. It is crucial to highlight the distinct chemical properties and characteristics of each bioproduct to justify exploration from both natural and cultivated sources, not only globally but also within the specific context of Brazil. A detailed approach to studying the nutraceutical properties, grounded in the actual chemical composition of these species, has the potential to drive commerce and impact within the food industry. This foodstuff presents ample potential for widespread exploration in the food industry. Concretely, Porphyra, Pyropia and Neopyropia species contain various biologically active compounds such as polysaccharides, pigments (phycobiliproteins), FA, and phenolic compounds that help add nutritional value to these species (Figure 2). These bioactive compounds show anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antitumor activities, among others (Bito; Watanabe, 2017).

Figure 2
Bioproducts class with nutritional value from Nori species and their biological properties. Fatty acids: eicosapentaenoic acid (1) and docosahexaenoic acid (2); Pigment: phycoerythrin (3); Phenolic compound: hesperidin (4); and Polysaccharide: Porphyran (5)

There is a growing need to diversify food sources to mitigate the overexploitation of terrestrial ecosystems, which has led to the exploration of marine resources, such as seaweed, as potential sources of fatty acids. Although seaweed generally contains a lower total lipid concentration compared to terrestrial sources, it is notable for its richness in essential unsaturated fatty acids, such as omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids (Leandro et al., 2020). On average, seaweed has a lipid productivity ranging from 0.61% to 4.15% of DW. However, some seaweed species may exceed these values, making them a potential source of unsaturated FA.

The Nori species are rich in PUFAs, of which 50% consists of EPA, along with omega-3 fatty acids, and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), highly valued for their benefits to human health. Additionally, the content of omega-6 fatty acids, such as linoleic acid, plays an essential role in regulating the immune system and skin health. The FA content in Nori and its potential was discussed in the item "Nutraceutical potential" (Table 3).

Among functional ingredients identified from seaweed, Pigments such as chlorophylls, carotenoids and phycobiliproteins exhibit several beneficial biological activities like antioxidant, anti-carcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, anti-obesity, anti-angiogenic and neuroprotective (Cuellar-Bermudez et al., 2015; Guedes; Amaro; Malcata, 2011). Chlorophylls are fat-soluble photosynthetic pigments produced by algae, higher plants and cyanobacteria (Ioannou; Roussis, 2009). Carotenoids are polyunsaturated hydrocarbons that increase the light-harvesting properties of algae and are considered accessory pigments (Lemoine; Schoefs, 2010). Similar to carotenoids, phytobiliproteins are intensely colored, water-soluble accessory pigments organized in supramolecular complexes produced by cyanobacteria and red algae (Rhodophyta) (Sekar; Chandramohan, 2007). Phycobiliproteins are used as food and have advantageous physical properties that make them suitable for applications in multiple industrial sectors (Guedes; Amaro; Malcata, 2011).

It is important to highlight that Nori species have a red color due to the presence of these pigments (Bito; Watanabe, 2017). Porphyra umbilicalis presented the higher concentrations of phycoerythrin, carotenoid and chlorophyll (1.88 μg. g^-1 Fresh weight) (Freitas et al., 2022). A study with the species Pyropia haitanensis demonstrated that high concentrations of nutrients significantly increased the average phycoerythrin (28–45 mg. g^-1 DW) and phycocyanin (18–35 mg. g^-1 DW) contents (Xu et al., 2020). In summary, the study demonstrates that nutrient enrichment can enhance the market value of P. haitanensis via stimulating the synthesis of phycobiliproteins (Xu et al., 2020).

The Porphyran (Polysaccharide) is a widely distributed sulfated anionic polymer in nature, exhibiting significant biological and pharmaceutical properties. Structurally, it consists of a linear chain of alternating β-D-galactosyl units with 3 linkages and units of 6-sulfate α-L-galactosyl with 4 linkages, or 3,6-anhydro-α-L-galactosyl units (Zhang et al., 2004). Its composition contains 78.2% sugar, 49.5% galactose, 17.5% 3,6-anhydrogalactose, and 2.0% and 5.6% free and bound sulfur, respectively. While the ash and protein content are 9.1% and 0.9%, respectively (Bhatia et al., 2008). More than 40% of the dry weight of Porphyra is composed of porphyran, a substance assessed for its potential nutritional and health benefits. Molecular weight, degree of sulfation, position of sulfate groups, type of sugar, and glycosidic branching are critical parameters influencing the activity of polysaccharides (Venkatraman; Mehta, 2019).

Studies have shown that the percentage of porphyran in bleached Nori (Pyropia yezoensis/Neopyropia yezoensi) is significantly higher than in normal Nori. Additionally, the composition of porphyran in bleached Nori differs, and it has a much lower molecular weight. The antioxidant activity of porphyran from bleached Nori was higher than that of porphyran from normal Nori in a dose-dependent manner. These findings suggest that porphyran is a potent antioxidant among naturally occurring substances in macroalgae and could be a valuable addition to antioxidant diets (Isaka et al., 2015).

It is also important to highlight that porphyran exhibits hypocholesterolemic and hypolipidemic effects, primarily by reducing the cholesterol absorption in the intestine, which leads to an increase in fecal cholesterol content and a hypoglycemic response. Additionally, it reduces total cholesterol, free cholesterol, triglycerides, and phospholipids in the liver. These beneficial effects make porphyran a promising compound for nutraceutical companies, which may market it as a health supplement (Tsuge et al., 2007).

The Phenolic compounds are a class of metabolites characterized by a hydroxyl group linked to an aromatic hydrocarbon group directly (Gomes et al., 2022). There is a wide range of structurally different phenolic compounds that can range from simple phenols to complex polyphenolic structures, such as flavonoids (Besednova et al., 2020). The importance of phenolic compounds in diets lies in their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective properties (Gomes et al., 2022). They are known to help combat oxidative stress, reduce inflammation in the body, and protect against chronic diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and neurodegenerative diseases (Jaganath; Crozier, 2010). Additionally, phenolic compounds may play a role in metabolism regulation, including reducing LDL cholesterol (Lutz et al., 2019) and improving insulin sensitivity, which is beneficial for the prevention and management of metabolic diseases such as type 2 diabetes (Lin et al., 2016).

Nori species have been reported to contain health-promoting phenolic compounds which are beneficial for human health (Xu et al., 2022). Phenolic compounds such as catechol, rutin and hesperidin were identified in the crude extract of Porphyra dentata (Kazlowska et al., 2010). Other studies registered the total phenolic content for extracts ranging from 10.81– 32.14 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE). g^-1 extract of Porphyra tenera (Hwang; Do Thi, 2014). The study by Ferreira et al. (2022), showed a total of phenolic compounds 4.47 ± 0.37 g. GAE kg^–1 for Porphyra dioica.

Economic potential in Brazil

In recent years, there has been a growing interest in using seaweed as a food source, with the seaweed market in the Western Hemisphere experiencing an annual growth rate of 7 to 10% (Sultana et al., 2023). In 2020, 36 million tons (wet weight) of seaweed were produced globally through aquaculture, primarily marine-based. China leads production with 62,8% of the total output, followed by Indonesia with 13,7%, the Philippines at around 10,6% and Korea (North and South) with 8% (FAO, 2022). Global trade in seaweed products reached US$5.6 billion in 2019 FAO (2022), and is projected to grow to US$ 22.13 billion by 2024, based on an annual growth rate of 8.9% (Cotas et al., 2020; Sultana et al., 2023). Only five genera accounted for more than 95% of cultivated algae, including Porphyra/Pyropia spp. with approximately 8,6%, according to FAO (Cai et al., 2021). Porphyra species generally have the highest values, around 1.727 euros per fresh ton (FAO, 2018).

The global production of Nori is concentrated in China, followed by South Korea and Japan, and has remained steady at 1.2 tons annually for the past decade. This stagnation is due to the lack of suitable areas and the need for a large workforce in these countries (FAO, 2005, 2018). However, with the consumer market expanding 5% annually, there is an increasing demand for innovation and development in production practices. This overview shows the economic potential of Nori species and includes perspectives for their use for global food security (Leandro et al., 2020).

Historically, the seaweed industry in Brazil has been based on the harvesting of natural seaweed beds (Simioni; Hayashi; Oliveira, 2019; Soriano et al., 2016). This practice still persists in several coastal communities in northeastern Brazil, where species from Gracilaria and Hypnea genera are cultivated for agar and carrageenan (Andrade et al., 2020; Sousa; Moura; Marinho-Soriano, 2012). However, in the 1990s, this activity declined due to the overexploitation of this resource. More sustainable practices, such as seaweed cultivation, have since supported the growth of algae production in Brazil (Soriano et al., 2016). Promising results from projects cultivating of Kappaphycus alvarezii in southern and southeastern Brazilian states demonstrate the country's substantial potential as a seaweed biomass producer (Hayashi; Reis, 2012; Obando et al., 2022; Pellizzari; Reis, 2011; Rudke; Andrade; Ferreira, 2020). Despite the growth in the algaculture sector, Brazil remains a net importer of seaweed, including varieties used in human consumption (such Nori, kombu, wakame) and their derivatives (Pellizzari; Reis, 2011; Soriano et al., 2016). According to data from the consultation platform of the Ministério do Desenvolvimento, Indústria, Comércio e Serviços (MDIC), Brazil imported a high biomass of algae (around 616 t) for human consumption (including wakame, kombu and Nori) (BRASIL, 2024). Although not specified, it is believed that most of the imported are Nori products, given their widely used in Japanese cuisine in Brazil. The primary ports for these imports are located in the states of São Paulo (53.38%), Paraná (21.85%), and Santa Catarina (8.07%) (Figure 3). Additionally, the top exporters are in China (46.4%), South Korea (20.9%) and Singapore (14.7%).

Figure 3
Data on algae imports for human consumption in Brazil, highlighting the primary purchasing states. The figure was created using public data from the Ministério do Desenvolvimento, Indústria, Comércio e Serviços (Brazil, 2024)

In exploratory research on the commercialization of Nori seaweed sheets in the Brazilian market (Supplementary data), it was observed that a wide range of international brands offer Nori products for Japanese cuisine. These include well-known names such as Sukina_®, Mac_®, Fukumatsu_®, Kenko (Sakura_®), Yakisushinori_®, Edomae_®, Karui_®, Manmaru_®, Takaokaya, and Maki. However, it is important to note that only a few brands specify the particular species of algae in their product descriptions. Packaging sizes varies between 25 g to 140 g, offering various options for consumers. Most of these products originate from Asian countries, particularly China, which aligns with literature on the production of Porphyra, Pyropia, and Neopyropia seaweeds. We also registered products imported from South Korea, and Japan. Additionally, the price per kilogram varies considerably, ranging from R$ 310.00 to R$ 1328.00, indicating a high market value and suggesting significant potential for growth in this segment.

Regarding the cultivation of Nori species in Brazil, research has primarily been conducted at laboratory scale (Obando et al., 2022; Pereira et al., 2020; Urrea-Victoria et al., 2022). A recent cultivation laboratory study explored how nitrate content influences the growth rate, concentration of photosynthetic pigments, and concentration of secondary metabolites in Pyropia var. brasiliensis (Pereira et al., 2020). Although studies have confirmed the presence of Nori species in Brazil (Milstein et al., 2015), no attempts have been made to develop commercial cultivation of these species (Simioni; Hayashi; Oliveira, 2019). This highlights the potential for commercial exploitation of these algae in Brazil. Furthermore, cultivating Nori in Brazil has the potential to contribute to achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 2 (Zero Hunger), 12 (sustainable production and consumption), and especially SDG 14 (Life Below Water) (Spillias et al., 2022).

CONCLUSION

In this review, we discuss comprehensive studies on the composition and nutritional properties of Nori species (Porphyra, Pyropia, and Neopyropia). Nori algae are excellent sources of essential nutrients such as carbohydrates, lipids (including PUFAs), proteins, minerals and secondary metabolites with biological properties beneficial to human health. These attributes make Nori algae promising candidates as functional food ingredients, with applications extending in both human and animal nutrition, as well as in various industrial sectors. Furthermore, Nori algae have significant market potential, with large-scale cultivation already taking place worldwide. Continuous research aimed at further understanding and harnessing the nutritional benefits of Nori seaweed, along with studies focused on cultivating these resources in Brazil, could pave the way for its integration into a variety of food products. This would also create favorable conditions for expanding algaculture in the country. Given Brazil's rich biodiversity, it is well-positioned to strengthen its presence in the global Nori aquaculture sector, while contributing to Brazilian food security in alignment with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals goals (SDGs).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to thank the Fundação Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) (TCS - PhD); the INCT Nanotechnology for Sustainable Agriculture, National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (MCTI-CNPq INCTNanoAgro #405924/2022-4; 302711/2023-6 and #303653/2022-1 MEC-CAPES INCTNanoAgro #88887.953443/2024-00); and São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP) process n.° 2022/02756-4 for the financial support to perform this study.

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Edited by

• Editor-in-Chief: Prof. Alek Sandro Dutra - [e-mail]

Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  17 Feb 2025
• Date of issue
  2025

History

• Received
  13 Sept 2024
• Accepted
  25 Sept 2024