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The relationship between gender policies and the creation of businesses by women

Abstract

Objective:

to analyze the effects of gender policies on women's business creation.

Methodology/approach:

quantitative approach, with secondary data extracted from the Municipal Basic Information Survey (MUNIC); and public CNPJ data from the Federal Revenue Service. The level of analysis was restricted to the 246 municipalities in the state of Goiás. From this, tests were performed with two negative binomial regression models.

Main results:

for women entrepreneurs who created their businesses alone, gender policies showed a positive relationship; on the other hand, for those who created companies in partnership, no influence was identified. With these results, it is possible to understand that the same support measures may not have similar effects to all types of business creation by women.

Theoretical-methodological contributions:

this study showed that, when analyzing public policies as a means of p romoting entrepreneurship by women, one should consider the existing differences between them, either in the contextual aspects in which they are inserted, or as the specificity of each group, bearing in mind that needs different require different support actions.

Relevance/originality:

especially for women who are self-employed, according to this research, the existence of gender policies proves to be an important factor, since difficulties, such as those generated by discrimination, can be faced, thus meeting the needs of access to education, equality, health and safety.

Keywords:
Business Creation by Women; Gender Policies; EIRELI; Limited Company

Resumo

Objetivo:

analisar os efeitos das políticas de gênero na criação de empresas por mulheres.

Metodologia/abordagem:

abordagem quantitativa, com dados secundários extraídos da Pesquisa de Informações Básicas Municipais (MUNIC); e dados públicos de CNPJ, da Receita Federal. O nível de análise foi restrito aos 246 municípios do estado de Goiás. A partir disso, foram realizados testes com dois modelos de regressão binomial negativos.

Principais resultados:

para as empreendedoras que criaram seus negócios sozinhas, as políticas de gênero apresentaram uma relação positiva; por outro lado, para as que criaram empresas em sociedade, nenhuma influência foi identificada. Com esses resultados, é possível compreender que as mesmas medidas de apoio podem não apresentar efeitos semelhantes a todos os tipos de criação de empresas por mulheres.

Contribuições teóricas-metodológicas:

este estudo evidenciou que, ao analisar as políticas públicas como meio de fomento ao empreendedorismo por mulheres, deve-se considerar as diferenças existentes entre elas, seja nos aspectos contextuais nos quais estão inseridas, seja como especificidade de cada grupo, tendo em vista que necessidades diferentes requererem ações de apoio distintas.

Relevância/originalidade:

especialmente para as mulheres que empreendem sozinhas, segundo esta pesquisa, a existência de políticas de gênero mostra-se fator importante, pois dificuldades, como as geradas pela discriminação, poderão ser enfrentadas, atendendo, com isso, às necessidades de acesso à educação, à igualdade, à saúde e à segurança.

Palavras-chave:
Criação de Empresas por Mulheres; Políticas de Gênero; Empresa Individual de Responsabilidade Limitada (EIRELI); Sociedade Empresária Limitada

INTRODUCTION

Policies to support women’s entrepreneurship not always reach the desired results. Studies by (a) Pandey and Amezcua (2020Pandey, S., & Amezcua, A. S. (2020). Women’s business ownership and women’s entrepreneurship through the lens of U.S. federal policies. Small Business Economics, 54, 1123-1152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-0122-5
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-0122-...
), which were carried out in the United States, did not point out the effects expected by support programs; by Okeke-Uzodike et al. (2018Okeke-Uzodike, O. E., Okeke-Uzodike, U., & Ndinda, C. (2018). Women entrepreneurship in Kwazulu-Natal: A critical review of government intervention politics and programs. Journal of International Women’s Studies, 19(5), 147-164. https://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws/vol19/iss5/10
https://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws/vol19/iss5/1...
), which was performed in South Africa to assess policies focused on approaching women’s economic empowerment through financial assistance, consultancy training and services - no action was good enough to encourage business’ launching by women -; are examples of studies in this field.

Lack of efficacy among policies aimed at feminine participation in new businesses can be partly explained by the influence of other factors, such as gender discrimination, and hard time accessing education, health and well-being promotion, daycare availability for their children or maternity leave, among others (Foss et al., 2019Foss, L., Henry, C., Ahl, H., & Mikalsen, G. H. (2019). Women’s entrepreneurship policy research: a 30-year review of the evidence. Small Business Economics, 53(2), 409-429. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-9993-8
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-9993-...
).

It is important highlighting that some of these aspects are already observed in gender policy agendas linked to gender equality and inclusion programs, and to support to labor and income (Bandeira, 2005Bandeira, L. (2005). Brasil: Fortalecimento da Secretaria Especial de Políticas para as Mulheres: Avançar na Transversalizaçao da perspectiva de Gênero nas Políticas Públicas. Brasília: Convênio Secretaria Especial de Política Para as Mulheres/Comissão Econômica Para América Latina e Caribe (SPM/CEPAL). http://acesso.mte.gov.br/data/files/FF8080812BAFFE3B012BCB0932095E3A/integra_publ_lourdes_bandeira.pdf
http://acesso.mte.gov.br/data/files/FF80...
; Farah, 2006Farah, M. F. S. (2006). Gender and Public Policy. Estudos Feministas, 12, 47-71. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3324947?origin=crossref
https://www.jstor.org/stable/3324947?ori...
; Muntean, 2013Muntean, S. C. (2013). Wind beneath my wings: policies promoting high-growth oriented women entrepreneurs. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 5(1), 36-59. https://doi.org/10.1108/17566261311305201
https://doi.org/10.1108/1756626131130520...
). According to Villaseca et al. (2020Villaseca, D., Navío-marco, J., & Gimeno, R. (2020). Money for female entrepreneurs does not grow on trees: start-ups’ financing implications in times of COVID-19. Journal of Entrepreneurship in Emerging Economies, 13(4), 698-720. https://doi.org/10.1108/JEEE-06-2020-0172
https://doi.org/10.1108/JEEE-06-2020-017...
), using gender policies is a likely alternative to fight the gaps observed in the existing women’s entrepreneurship policies.

Given the relevance of aspects associated with gender policies when it comes to women’s entrepreneurship, Foss et al. (2019Foss, L., Henry, C., Ahl, H., & Mikalsen, G. H. (2019). Women’s entrepreneurship policy research: a 30-year review of the evidence. Small Business Economics, 53(2), 409-429. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-9993-8
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-9993-...
) suggest that future research must encompass gender social mechanisms. Giménez and Calabrò (2018Giménez, D., & Calabrò, A. (2018). The salient role of institutions in Women’s entrepreneurship: a critical review and agenda for future research. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 14(4), 857-882. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-017-0480-5
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-017-0480-...
) made effective analyses of gender equality policy effects on such entrepreneurship.

It is so, because the existing studies in this field still (a) approach policies that encourage business creation by women in an implicit or broad way, and it impairs the implementation of specific actions in this field; and (b) neglect gender structures by recommending policies focused on molding entrepreneur women, rather than on focusing on adjustments in the environment to this specific population (Foss et al., 2019Foss, L., Henry, C., Ahl, H., & Mikalsen, G. H. (2019). Women’s entrepreneurship policy research: a 30-year review of the evidence. Small Business Economics, 53(2), 409-429. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-9993-8
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-9993-...
).

Thus, the aim of the present study was to analyze the effects of gender policies on business creation by two groups of women, namely: individual entrepreneurs and entrepreneur women with partners.

These two groups were chosen because of the premise, according to which, undertaking with a team is different from doing so, alone. Those who undertake with partners gather resources from different team members, such as competence, financial input, contacts in networks (Bernhard & Olsson, 2020Bernhard, I., & Olsson, A. K. (2020). Network collaboration for local and regional development - The case of Swedish women entrepreneurs. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business, 41(4), 539-561. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJESB.2020.111578
https://doi.org/10.1504/IJESB.2020.11157...
; Pinzón et al., 2022Pinzón, N., Montero, J., & González-Pernía, J. L. (2022). The influence of individual characteristics on getting involved in an entrepreneurial team: The contingent role of individualism. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 18, 1103-1140 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-021-00768-0
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-021-00768...
), among others. On the other hand, those who undertake on their own only count on their own resources, without a partner to give them support at times of difficulty (Lim & Suh, 2019Lim, Y., & Suh, C. S. (2019). Where is my partner? The role of gender in the formation of entrepreneurial businesses. Small Business Economics, 52(1), 131-151. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-0027-3
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-0027-...
). In other words, besides the demands and challenges commonly faced by entrepreneurs in teams, there are other factors affecting those who undertake on their own. This process allows gender policies to play different roles in each of the herein assessed groups.

BUSINESS CREATION BY WOMEN

Dheer et al. (2019Dheer, R. J. S., Li, M., & Treviño, L. J. (2019). An integrative approach to the gender gap in entrepreneurship across nations. Journal of World Business, 54(6), 101004. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2019.101004
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2019.10100...
), carried out a study based on data from 45 countries; they showed that women have 30% less probability of undertaking than men. These data can be related to the contextual aspects women are inserted in, since they lack entrepreneurship-support mechanisms, and face a hard time accessing networks and actions to develop the basic skills to run a business (Dheer et al., 2019).

Women also face social and cultural judging, and it labels them as lesser skilled to undertake. This stigma impairs financing obtainment and the creation of political structures; moreover, it broadens the lack of acknowledgement, increases bureaucracy and deepens gender discrimination (Bui et al., 2018Bui, H. T. M., Kuan, A., & Chu, T. T. (2018). Female entrepreneurship in patriarchal society: motivation and challenges. Journal of Small Business & Entrepreneurship, 30(4), 325-343. https://doi.org/10.1080/08276331.2018.1435841
https://doi.org/10.1080/08276331.2018.14...
; Halabisky, 2018Halabisky, D. (2018). Policy Brief on Women’s Entrepreneurship. OECD SME and Entrepreneurship Papers, 8, Paris: OECD. https://doi.org/10.1787/dd2d79e7-en
https://doi.org/10.1787/dd2d79e7-en...
).

Undertaking, for these women, means facing barriers, such as lack of expertise on the business field, insecurity to leave their job positions (Machado et al., 2016Machado, H. P. V., Gazola, S., Fabricio, J. D. S., & Anez, M. E. M. (2016). Women Entrepreneurs: Reasons and Difficulties for Starting in Business. Revista de Administração Mackenzie, 17(3), 15-38. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-69712016/administracao.v17n3p15-38
https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-69712016/ad...
), lack of resources to start their own business (Brush et al., 2019Brush, C., Edelman, L. F., Manolova, T., & Welter, F. (2019). A gendered look at entrepreneurship ecosystems. Small Business Economics, 53(2), 393-408. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-9992-9
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-9992-...
; Machado et al., 2016), hard time getting the initial capital and lack of incentive from family members (Machado et al., 2013). Other groups of entrepreneur women, in their turn, overcome these barriers due to their labor preferences and/or to their different life styles (Vracheva & Stoyneva, 2020Vracheva, V., & Stoyneva, I. (2020). Does gender equality bridge or Gender gap ? A cross-country investigation. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 26(8), 1827-1844. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-03-2020-0144
https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-03-2020-01...
).

Conditions to undertake on their own, or with partners, are among these preferences. Despite the advantage of undertaking with partners, several people tend to create their business alone, but women are more prone to undertake on their own (Lim & Suh, 2019Lim, Y., & Suh, C. S. (2019). Where is my partner? The role of gender in the formation of entrepreneurial businesses. Small Business Economics, 52(1), 131-151. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-0027-3
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-0027-...
; Pinzón et al., 2022Pinzón, N., Montero, J., & González-Pernía, J. L. (2022). The influence of individual characteristics on getting involved in an entrepreneurial team: The contingent role of individualism. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 18, 1103-1140 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-021-00768-0
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-021-00768...
). Lack of expertise to run a business was highlighted by Pinzón et al. (2022), and cultural aspects were pointed out by Lim and Suh (2019) - all these factors influence decision-making about this particular choice. Santos and Neumeyer (2022Santos, S. C., & Neumeyer, X. (2022). Culture and gender in entrepreneurial teams: the effect on team processes and outcomes. Small Business Economics, 58(2), 1035-1050. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-020-00432-x
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-020-00432...
) completed the aforementioned understanding by highlighting that undertaking with partners, mainly for women, depends on how they are seen by cultural standards.

Having a partner allows sharing responsibilities, functions and combining skills to make the team more complete, at the time to start a business (Lim & Suh, 2019Lim, Y., & Suh, C. S. (2019). Where is my partner? The role of gender in the formation of entrepreneurial businesses. Small Business Economics, 52(1), 131-151. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-0027-3
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-0027-...
). This is an alternative to get financial resources and emotional support, mainly for women (Maden, 2015Maden, C. (2015). A gendered lens on entrepreneurship: women entrepreneurship in Turkey. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 30(4), 312-331. https://doi.org/10.1108/GM-11-2013-0131
https://doi.org/10.1108/GM-11-2013-0131...
). However, according to Lim and Suh (2019), women tend to create individual businesses due to lack of resources and to cultural and social aspects. The same does not happen when they are self-confident, have professional expertise, leadership skills, and capital, cultural and social features, since these features can make them look for a partner at the time to launch a new business.

It is worth highligting that women business’ initial performance can be lower than that of men when women undertake alone (Lim & Suh, 2019Lim, Y., & Suh, C. S. (2019). Where is my partner? The role of gender in the formation of entrepreneurial businesses. Small Business Economics, 52(1), 131-151. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-0027-3
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-0027-...
).

These findings shine light on the relevance of formal institutions aimed at encouraging female entrepreneurship (Bui et al., 2018Bui, H. T. M., Kuan, A., & Chu, T. T. (2018). Female entrepreneurship in patriarchal society: motivation and challenges. Journal of Small Business & Entrepreneurship, 30(4), 325-343. https://doi.org/10.1080/08276331.2018.1435841
https://doi.org/10.1080/08276331.2018.14...
), since they act through programs to promote better conditions to this population, such as inclusion and equality (Brush et al., 2017Brush, C., Ali, A., Kelley, D., & Greene, P. (2017). The influence of human capital factors and context on women’s entrepreneurship: Which matters more? Journal of Business Venturing Insights, 8(April), 105-113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbvi.2017.08.001
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbvi.2017.08.0...
).

Gender policies under the lens of entrepreneurship

Gender policies are centered on autonomy promotion and on women’s empowerment (Bandeira, 2005Bandeira, L. (2005). Brasil: Fortalecimento da Secretaria Especial de Políticas para as Mulheres: Avançar na Transversalizaçao da perspectiva de Gênero nas Políticas Públicas. Brasília: Convênio Secretaria Especial de Política Para as Mulheres/Comissão Econômica Para América Latina e Caribe (SPM/CEPAL). http://acesso.mte.gov.br/data/files/FF8080812BAFFE3B012BCB0932095E3A/integra_publ_lourdes_bandeira.pdf
http://acesso.mte.gov.br/data/files/FF80...
). Human rights, violence, schooling, support for family care and insertion in the labor market are the main issues discussed by Jang (2009Jang, S. J. (2009). Global women’s movements and Korean gender policy discourse. International Social Work, 52(6), 831-835. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020872809342661
https://doi.org/10.1177/0020872809342661...
).

Instruments to formulate, monitor and coordinate policies for women are on the hands of Municipal Councils for Women’s Rights (Martins & Conteratto, 2018Martins, C. H. B., & Conteratto, D. (2018). Políticas públicas de gênero: estrutura e gestão nos municípios brasileiros. Indicadores Econômicos FEE, 45(3), 101-114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2019.102237
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2019.1022...
; Ribas, 2015Ribas, M. F. (2015). Mecanismos Institucionais para o Avanço da Mulher. Brasília, DF: Instituto de Pesquisa Econômica Aplicada (Ipea). https://www.ipea.gov.br/retrato/pdf/190215_tema_h_mecanismos_institucionais_para_o_avanco_da_mulher.pdf
https://www.ipea.gov.br/retrato/pdf/1902...
). Their mission is to rule out any form of discrimination against women, to ensure their insertion in several areas of society and to create bureaus capable of joining public administration and civil society (Martins & Conteratto, 2018).

According to Martins and Conteratto (2018Martins, C. H. B., & Conteratto, D. (2018). Políticas públicas de gênero: estrutura e gestão nos municípios brasileiros. Indicadores Econômicos FEE, 45(3), 101-114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2019.102237
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2019.1022...
), prevention measures, mainly to fight violence against women, have improved, and it points out the relevance of such structures for gender policies. This process highlights the need of municipalities having their own governmental bureau focused on policies for women (Martins & Conteratto, 2018).

Therefore, it is essential emphasizing that gender embodiment is oftentimes approached as key aspect for a successful policy. Thus, it is expected to have programs to promote improvements and more equality in this field (Engeli & Mazur, 2018Engeli, I., & Mazur, A. (2018). Taking implementation seriously in assessing success: the politics of gender equality policy. European Journal of Politics and Gender, 1(1), 111-129. https://doi.org/10.1332/251510818X15282097548558
https://doi.org/10.1332/251510818X152820...
).

Based on Bandeira (2005Bandeira, L. (2005). Brasil: Fortalecimento da Secretaria Especial de Políticas para as Mulheres: Avançar na Transversalizaçao da perspectiva de Gênero nas Políticas Públicas. Brasília: Convênio Secretaria Especial de Política Para as Mulheres/Comissão Econômica Para América Latina e Caribe (SPM/CEPAL). http://acesso.mte.gov.br/data/files/FF8080812BAFFE3B012BCB0932095E3A/integra_publ_lourdes_bandeira.pdf
http://acesso.mte.gov.br/data/files/FF80...
), talking about gender equality means taking the path to equity, emancipation and sense of belonging, since women redefine themselves based on culture, on labor relationships, and on other aspects that open room for new opportunities aimed at overcoming inequality.

Gender policies and their effects on women’s entrepreneurship

On the one hand, when cultural values favor human rights, entrepreneur women have more resources to get better balance between their personal and professional lives, because their effort will be socially acceptable. On the other hand, if cultural values are against gender equality, these values can influence the way women think, discourage them and make them feel like they miss freedom (Clercq & Brieger, 2022Clercq, D. de, & Brieger, S. A. (2022). When Discrimination is Worse, Autonomy is Key: How Women Entrepreneurs Leverage Job Autonomy Resources to Find Work-Life Balance. Journal of Business Ethics, 177, 665-682. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-021-04735-1
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-021-04735...
).

According to Zandberg (2021Zandberg, J. (2021). Family comes first : Reproductive health and the gender gap in entrepreneurship. Journal of Financial Economics, 140(3), 838-864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfineco.2020.06.020
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfineco.2020.0...
), gender differences in entrepreneurship encompass several factors, such as access to resources and education, and aversion to risk. In any case, these aspects are not always closely related to entrepreneurship. Better access to health, for example, is an important determinant for higher women’s entrepreneurship rates, as observed by him.

Dilli and Westerhuis (2018Dilli, S., & Westerhuis, G. (2018). How institutions and gender differences in education shape entrepreneurial activity: a cross-national perspective. Small Business Economics, 51(2), 371-392. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-0004-x
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-0004-...
) assessed the role played by gender differences in promoting opportunities perceived by women and men who aim at setting a business partnership. They observed the relevance of taking into account tools specific for gender policies.

Accordingly, based on Villaseca et al. (2020Villaseca, D., Navío-marco, J., & Gimeno, R. (2020). Money for female entrepreneurs does not grow on trees: start-ups’ financing implications in times of COVID-19. Journal of Entrepreneurship in Emerging Economies, 13(4), 698-720. https://doi.org/10.1108/JEEE-06-2020-0172
https://doi.org/10.1108/JEEE-06-2020-017...
), women’s entrepreneurship rates reach half, or even less than half, of rates recorded for men in almost 40% of the economies. Besides, they compose the group that mostly suffers with the impact of lack of financial access, networking and coaches. According to these authors, without the guarantee of gender policies to fight such negative effects, inequality in opportunities for men and women will just increase.

According to Bayeh (2016Bayeh, E. (2016). The role of empowering women and achieving gender equality to the sustainable development of Ethiopia. Pacific Science Review B: Humanities and Social Sciences, 2(1), 37-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psrb.2016.09.013
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psrb.2016.09.0...
), a given context can generate development when one invests in women’s qualification, since it leads to gender equality; so women, can act in at several scopes of society: economic, social and political. The aforementioned author advocates for the need of giving women proper access to education, since this is a crucial factor for their inclusion in the market, mainly in fields that demand different skills and qualifications.

Syed and Ali (2019Syed, J., & Ali, F. (2019). A relational perspective on gender equality and mainstreaming. Human Resource Development International, 22(1), 4-24. https://doi.org/10.1080/13678868.2018.1495406
https://doi.org/10.1080/13678868.2018.14...
) also showed that an inclusive environment must be created for women, who must be supported at the time to develop their professional path to new job positions and to other opportunities in the labor market.

Patterson and Walcutt (2017Patterson, L., & Walcutt, B. (2017). Review of Korean workplace gender policy literature from 1989 to 2014. Asia Pacific Business Review, 23(5), 713-733. https://doi.org/10.1080/13602381.2016.1214365
https://doi.org/10.1080/13602381.2016.12...
) developed a study aimed at investigating the literature about gender policies by the South-Korean government. They identified that women’s larger participation in the market has proven the positive impact of gender policies either on the public or private sectors.

With respect to business creation by women, Muntean (2013Muntean, S. C. (2013). Wind beneath my wings: policies promoting high-growth oriented women entrepreneurs. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 5(1), 36-59. https://doi.org/10.1108/17566261311305201
https://doi.org/10.1108/1756626131130520...
), compared data about institutional and cultural factors affecting this population’s decision-making. He observed how relevant measures, such as health, education, and income, are to ensure women’s human development. This development, in its turn, can lead to more ventures and to the creation of more job positions.

Child care is also a governmental action capable of making feminine participation in the market easier, mainly when it comes to women’s entrepreneurship (Elam & Terjesen, 2010Elam, A., & Terjesen, S. (2010). Gendered Institutions and Cross-National Patterns of Business Creation for Men and Women. The European Journal of Development Research, 22(3), 331-348. https://doi.org/10.1057/ejdr.2010.19
https://doi.org/10.1057/ejdr.2010.19...
). According to Baughn et al. (2006Baughn, C. C., Chua, B.-L., & Neupert, K. E. (2006). The Normative Context for Women’s Participation in Entrepreneruship: A Multicountry Study. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 30(5), 687-708. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2006.00142.x
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2006...
), locations that value gender equality are positively associated with support for entrepreneur women.

Furthermore, given the several responsibilities entrepreneur women often carry, they end up being directly influenced by other policies, rather than just by those related to business properties, for example: sexual discrimination, access to education, health promotion and well-being (availability of daycare centers and maternity leave). This is a way for women to keep their participation in the labor market (Foss et al., 2019Foss, L., Henry, C., Ahl, H., & Mikalsen, G. H. (2019). Women’s entrepreneurship policy research: a 30-year review of the evidence. Small Business Economics, 53(2), 409-429. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-9993-8
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-9993-...
).

Actually, societies that give women traditional gender roles, such as domestic duties, mark the action of undertaking as a less attractive alternative for them (Welter, 2020Welter, F. (2020). Contexts and gender - looking back and thinking forward. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 12(1), 27-38. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJGE-04-2019-0082
https://doi.org/10.1108/IJGE-04-2019-008...
). Hechavarría and Ingram (2019Hechavarría, D. M., & Ingram, A. E. (2019). Entrepreneurial ecosystem conditions and gendered national-level entrepreneurial activity: a 14-year panel study of GEM. Small Business Economics, 53(2), 431-458. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-9994-7
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-9994-...
) also reported that patriarchal societies reduce women’s commitment to undertake, and the reasons for it are related to the unfair treatments given to them and to gender discrimination.

It is essential for entrepreneur women to have access to resources other than the material ones, such as the case of protection and health, which can help them achieving professional and personal deeds (Clercq & Brieger, 2022Clercq, D. de, & Brieger, S. A. (2022). When Discrimination is Worse, Autonomy is Key: How Women Entrepreneurs Leverage Job Autonomy Resources to Find Work-Life Balance. Journal of Business Ethics, 177, 665-682. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-021-04735-1
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-021-04735...
). Such a behavior would turn the market into a more adequate place for women’s entrepreneurship.

Accordingly, the following research hypotheses were developed:

H1: There is positive association between gender policies and the creation of legal-nature companies - Limited Liability Company - by women.

H2: There is positive association between gender and the creation of legal-nature companies - Limited Liability Sole Proprietorship (in Portuguese, Empresa Individual de Responsabilidade Limitada - EIRELI).

METHODOLOGICAL PROCEDURES

Descriptive, analytical study of quantitative approach (Collis & Hussey, 2005Collis, J., & Hussey, R. (2005). Pesquisa em administração: um guia prático para alunos de graduação e pós-graduação (2ª. ed.). Porto Alegre: Bookman.), with cross-sectional cutting (Cooper & Schindler 2011Cooper, D. R., & Schindler, P. S. (2011). Métodos de Pesquisa em Administração (10ª ed.). Porto Alegre: Bookman.). Secondary data collected from two different sources were used in the study: (1) Survey on Basic Municipal Information (MUNIC), which was developed by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE); and (2) National Registry of Legal Entities (CNPJ) of the Federal Revenue Service.

MUNIC database provides information about gender policies, their structure and about the functioning of public institutions related to this topic (IBGE, 2019). Although this survey has been carried out since 1999, it was only from 2005 onwards that gender policy aspects started being analyzed by it. By having in mind, the potential influence of these policies on business creation by women, information about companies created by women from 2005 onwards were also collected in the database of the Federal Revenue Service.

If one takes into consideration that the public CNPJ database by the Federal Revenue Service does not present variable sex, it was necessary using the gender BR package in R language to likely identify female entrepreneurs. This software has been used in other studies, such as in those by Fontenelle et al. (2020Fontenelle, L. F., Rossi, S. V., Oliveira, M. H. M. De, Brandão, D. J., & Sarti, T. D. (2020). Postgraduate education among family and community physicians in Brazil: the Trajetórias MFC project. Family Medicine and Community Health, 8(3), e000321. https://doi.org/10.1136/fmch-2020-000321
https://doi.org/10.1136/fmch-2020-000321...
), and de Santana and Braga (2020Santana, T. S., & Braga, A. H. (2020). Uma Análise Cienciométrica das Publicações do Congresso da Sociedade Brasileira de Computação na Perspectiva das Mulheres na Computação (pp. 279-283). Anais do Women in Information Technology (WIT 2020). https://doi.org/10.5753/wit.2020.11310
https://doi.org/10.5753/wit.2020.11310...
). This software stores data from IBGE’s Brazil Census used to predict sex through people’s names. Because women entrepreneurs’ information is available in the public database of the Federal Revenue Service, this information was also used to predict entrepreneurs’ sex.

This database was filtered based on records about the creation of active companies in Goiás State, from 2005 onwards; in total, 218,387 records were registered. After data treatment for sex identification, only 200,506 companies remained in the sample; in other words, the algorithm was capable of identifying 91.81% of entrepreneurships’ names.

If one has in mind that the MUNIC survey has evolved, but that it kept its screening questions related to gender policies, option was made for extracting the most recent data in its online base, in IBGE’s platform (referring to 2018). The total of 246 municipalities in Goiás State were filtered, and this number set the present study’s analysis level. Thus, it was possible making a comparative analysis of data in both databases and, consequently, assessing the influence of gender policies on business creation by women.

Variables’ description

The aim was to describe the variables listed for the conduction of the present research. They were split into dependent and independent variables, as follows.

Dependent variables

The study used two dependent variables that were measured to assess whether they were influenced by the independent variable (Cooper & Schindler, 2011Cooper, D. R., & Schindler, P. S. (2011). Métodos de Pesquisa em Administração (10ª ed.). Porto Alegre: Bookman.), namely: (1) creation of legal-nature company - limited liability company - by women (206-2); and (2) creation of legal-nature company - EIRELI - by women (230-5).

Based on provision in law n. 12.441 (2011), EIRELI must be held by only one entrepreneur, whereas limited liability companies, provided on law n. 10.406 (2002), can be formed by one or more entrepreneurs - the responsibility of each entrepreneur is limited to the value of its share in the company; however, all of them are accountable for social capital payment.

In total, 237 of the 246 municipalities in Goiás State have active companies created by women from 2005 onwards, in the EIRELI category. Limited liability companies, in their turn, were observed in all 246 municipalities.

Independent variable

Gender policy was used as independent variable, and it is a dummy variable formed by the existence, or not, of an executive bureau focused on women policies, such as the case of the Municipal Plan for Women’s Policy, and the Municipal Council of Women’s Rights.

In order to do so, score 1 (one) was given to municipalities with at least 2 (two) of these elements; and score 0 (zero) to those with just 1 (one) of them, or with no element at all.

The existence of a bureau, such as the Municipal Plan for Women’s Policy and the Municipal Council for Women’s Rights, can help implementing policies to ensure factors from gender equality and women empowerment to women’s insertion in several scopes of society (Bandeira, 2005Bandeira, L. (2005). Brasil: Fortalecimento da Secretaria Especial de Políticas para as Mulheres: Avançar na Transversalizaçao da perspectiva de Gênero nas Políticas Públicas. Brasília: Convênio Secretaria Especial de Política Para as Mulheres/Comissão Econômica Para América Latina e Caribe (SPM/CEPAL). http://acesso.mte.gov.br/data/files/FF8080812BAFFE3B012BCB0932095E3A/integra_publ_lourdes_bandeira.pdf
http://acesso.mte.gov.br/data/files/FF80...
; Jang, 2009Jang, S. J. (2009). Global women’s movements and Korean gender policy discourse. International Social Work, 52(6), 831-835. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020872809342661
https://doi.org/10.1177/0020872809342661...
).

Table 1 describes the elements to form variable “gender policy”.

Table 2 introduces the list of dependent and independent variables selected to the present study.

Table 1
Formation of variable “gender policy”
Table 2
Study variables

Analysis models

According to Fávero (2015Fávero L. P. (2015). Análise de dados: modelos de regressão com Excel®, Stata® e SPSS® (1. ed.). Rio de Janeiro: Elsevier Brasil.), it is common estimating a regression model based on ordinary least squares when the dependent variable is quantitative. However, if one takes into account that the present dependent variables are counting variables, the Poisson regression models in the Generalized Linear Models (GLM) become the most appropriate ones, because the least squares approach could generate biased estimators (Fávero, 2015).

Nevertheless, given the evidence of super dispersion of data in the current study - i.e., the variance in the dependent variable ended up being higher than the mean-, it was better working with the negative binomial regression model from the GLM group, which is estimated based on maximum likelihood and matches data counting (Fávero, 2015Fávero L. P. (2015). Análise de dados: modelos de regressão com Excel®, Stata® e SPSS® (1. ed.). Rio de Janeiro: Elsevier Brasil.). This technique allowed analyzing the association between the herein assessed independent and dependent variables.

Negative binomial regression models

The estimated regression models were treated in separate. The offset component provided by estimates on the economically active women population in municipalities of Goiás State were included in all models to mold the amount of women entrepreneurs based on municipalities’ populations.

Model 1 - tests the association between gender policies and EIRELI creation by women. Based on the study variables, Model 1’s equation is expressed as follows:

M 1 : E I R E L I = β _ 0 + β _ 1 g e n d e r _ p o l i c i e s + log ( P o p u l a t i o n F ) + μ

Model 2 - tests the association between gender policies and the creation of Limited Liability Companies by women. Based on the study’s variables, Model 2’s equation is expressed as follows:

M 2 : lim i t e d c o m p a n y = β _ 0 + β _ 1 g e n d e r _ p o l i c i e s + log ( P o p u l a t i o n F ) + μ

Both regression models were tested in statistical R software, extension RStudio, version 4.0.3.

RESULTS’ PRESENTATION

The test by Cameron and Trivedi (1990Cameron, A. C., & Trivedi, P. K. (1990). Regression-based tests for overdispersion in the Poisson Model. Journal of Econometrics, 46(3), 347-364. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4076(90)90014-K
https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4076(90)900...
) was applied to assess super dispersion. As explained by them, Table 3 shows that the estimated parameter β was statistically different from zero, and the p-value was lower than 0.05. Therefore, the dependent variables presented super dispersion and were inappropriate for Poisson’s use.

Table 3
Super-dispersion test applied to Poisson regression models

Models 1 and 2 (Table 4 and Table 5) tested the association between gender policies and business creation by women based on two legal natures: limited liability company and EIRELI.

Table 4
Results recorded for regression models 1 and 2

It is possible observing that the association between gender policies and limited liability company’s creation by women in Model 1, although recording positive coefficient, did not reach any significance (β = 0.05558, p > 0.05). On the other hand, the association between gender policies and EIRELI creation by women was positive and statistically significant (β = 0.27013, p < 0.1).

Table 5
Summary of Hypotheses

RESULTS’ DISCUSSION

There is only positive association between gender policies and the creation of individual companies by women. This finding points towards a structure capable of helping the implementation of gender policies, and it highlights a promising path for ventures held by women. On the other hand, there was no positive association between women who create businesses in partnership with others and gender policies.

Moreover, in order to face the barriers found in this field, the only effective measure is linked to entrepreneurship promotion (Zandberg, 2021Zandberg, J. (2021). Family comes first : Reproductive health and the gender gap in entrepreneurship. Journal of Financial Economics, 140(3), 838-864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfineco.2020.06.020
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfineco.2020.0...
), but they need complementary assistance policies, such as balance between personal and professional life, as well as the search and achievement of autonomy, equality, health and safety (Clercq & Brieger, 2022Clercq, D. de, & Brieger, S. A. (2022). When Discrimination is Worse, Autonomy is Key: How Women Entrepreneurs Leverage Job Autonomy Resources to Find Work-Life Balance. Journal of Business Ethics, 177, 665-682. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-021-04735-1
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-021-04735...
; Foss et al., 2019Foss, L., Henry, C., Ahl, H., & Mikalsen, G. H. (2019). Women’s entrepreneurship policy research: a 30-year review of the evidence. Small Business Economics, 53(2), 409-429. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-9993-8
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-9993-...
).

These result differences between assessed groups highlights that there are specificities between the types of business creation by women (Machado et al., 2016Machado, H. P. V., Gazola, S., Fabricio, J. D. S., & Anez, M. E. M. (2016). Women Entrepreneurs: Reasons and Difficulties for Starting in Business. Revista de Administração Mackenzie, 17(3), 15-38. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-69712016/administracao.v17n3p15-38
https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-69712016/ad...
; Vracheva & Stoyneva, 2020Vracheva, V., & Stoyneva, I. (2020). Does gender equality bridge or Gender gap ? A cross-country investigation. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, 26(8), 1827-1844. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-03-2020-0144
https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-03-2020-01...
). Therefore, it is not possible stating that the same support measures will be effective to all women.

These differences derive from specificities among women, who cannot be treated as a single group. With respect to individual women entrepreneurs, cultural standards and beliefs can be more influential to their ventures (Bullough et al., 2014Bullough, A., Renko, M., & Abdelzaher, D. (2014). Women’s Business Ownership: Operating Within the Context of Institutional and In-Group Collectivism. Journal of Management, 43(7), 2037-2064. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206314561302
https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206314561302...
). Furthermore, there are certain limitations to be taken into account, such as financial resources, human and financial capital, and lack of business expertise (Lim & Suh, 2019Lim, Y., & Suh, C. S. (2019). Where is my partner? The role of gender in the formation of entrepreneurial businesses. Small Business Economics, 52(1), 131-151. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-0027-3
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-0027-...
; Pinzón et al., 2022Pinzón, N., Montero, J., & González-Pernía, J. L. (2022). The influence of individual characteristics on getting involved in an entrepreneurial team: The contingent role of individualism. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 18, 1103-1140 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-021-00768-0
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11365-021-00768...
), as well as how they are seen by society (Santos & Neumeyer, 2022Santos, S. C., & Neumeyer, X. (2022). Culture and gender in entrepreneurial teams: the effect on team processes and outcomes. Small Business Economics, 58(2), 1035-1050. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-020-00432-x
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-020-00432...
).

When women seek to undertake with partners, it is partly explained by the search for resources and support, so they can get more favorable conditions to undertake (Lim & Suh, 2019Lim, Y., & Suh, C. S. (2019). Where is my partner? The role of gender in the formation of entrepreneurial businesses. Small Business Economics, 52(1), 131-151. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-0027-3
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-0027-...
; Maden, 2015Maden, C. (2015). A gendered lens on entrepreneurship: women entrepreneurship in Turkey. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 30(4), 312-331. https://doi.org/10.1108/GM-11-2013-0131
https://doi.org/10.1108/GM-11-2013-0131...
; Santos & Neumeyer, 2022Santos, S. C., & Neumeyer, X. (2022). Culture and gender in entrepreneurial teams: the effect on team processes and outcomes. Small Business Economics, 58(2), 1035-1050. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-020-00432-x
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-020-00432...
), mainly in sectors dominated by men (Godwin et al., 2006Godwin, L. N., Stevens, C. E., & Brenner, N. L. (2006). Forced to Play by the Rules? Theorizing How Mixed-Sex Founding Teams Benefit Women Entrepreneurs in Male-Dominated Contexts. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 30(5), 623-642. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2006.00139.x
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2006...
).

Accordingly, based on the current results, it is possible understating that the existence of gender policies is a relevant factor to promote the creation of business by women. It is so, because certain difficulties often faced by entrepreneur women can be even more latent for those who undertake on their own, such as gender discrimination (Godwin et al., 2006Godwin, L. N., Stevens, C. E., & Brenner, N. L. (2006). Forced to Play by the Rules? Theorizing How Mixed-Sex Founding Teams Benefit Women Entrepreneurs in Male-Dominated Contexts. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 30(5), 623-642. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2006.00139.x
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2006...
), lack of knowledge, bureaucracy and scarce resources (Brush et al., 2019Brush, C., Edelman, L. F., Manolova, T., & Welter, F. (2019). A gendered look at entrepreneurship ecosystems. Small Business Economics, 53(2), 393-408. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-9992-9
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-9992-...
; Bui et al., 2018Bui, H. T. M., Kuan, A., & Chu, T. T. (2018). Female entrepreneurship in patriarchal society: motivation and challenges. Journal of Small Business & Entrepreneurship, 30(4), 325-343. https://doi.org/10.1080/08276331.2018.1435841
https://doi.org/10.1080/08276331.2018.14...
; Machado et al., 2016Machado, H. P. V., Gazola, S., Fabricio, J. D. S., & Anez, M. E. M. (2016). Women Entrepreneurs: Reasons and Difficulties for Starting in Business. Revista de Administração Mackenzie, 17(3), 15-38. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-69712016/administracao.v17n3p15-38
https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-69712016/ad...
).

The herein recorded results support the statement that policies focused on fighting sexual discrimination, and on promoting access to education, to health and well-being, actually can help women to remain participating in business ventures (Clercq & Brieger, 2022Clercq, D. de, & Brieger, S. A. (2022). When Discrimination is Worse, Autonomy is Key: How Women Entrepreneurs Leverage Job Autonomy Resources to Find Work-Life Balance. Journal of Business Ethics, 177, 665-682. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-021-04735-1
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-021-04735...
; Foss et al., 2019Foss, L., Henry, C., Ahl, H., & Mikalsen, G. H. (2019). Women’s entrepreneurship policy research: a 30-year review of the evidence. Small Business Economics, 53(2), 409-429. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-9993-8
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-9993-...
). This process, in its turn, must generate more equality to those who still face the weight of social judgement, resource limitations and work overload (Lim & Suh, 2019Lim, Y., & Suh, C. S. (2019). Where is my partner? The role of gender in the formation of entrepreneurial businesses. Small Business Economics, 52(1), 131-151. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-0027-3
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-0027-...
; Maden, 2015Maden, C. (2015). A gendered lens on entrepreneurship: women entrepreneurship in Turkey. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 30(4), 312-331. https://doi.org/10.1108/GM-11-2013-0131
https://doi.org/10.1108/GM-11-2013-0131...
).

It is worth highlighting the need of understanding the reasons why gender policies were not significantly related to women who launch their businesses with partners. According to Dilli and Westerhuis (2018Dilli, S., & Westerhuis, G. (2018). How institutions and gender differences in education shape entrepreneurial activity: a cross-national perspective. Small Business Economics, 51(2), 371-392. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-0004-x
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-0004-...
), different aspects must be taken into consideration in order to face the inequality of opportunities between men and women, as well as between women, themselves. Among them, one finds the development of actions to promote female empowerment and gender inclusion in the generation of new job positions (Bandeira, 2005Bandeira, L. (2005). Brasil: Fortalecimento da Secretaria Especial de Políticas para as Mulheres: Avançar na Transversalizaçao da perspectiva de Gênero nas Políticas Públicas. Brasília: Convênio Secretaria Especial de Política Para as Mulheres/Comissão Econômica Para América Latina e Caribe (SPM/CEPAL). http://acesso.mte.gov.br/data/files/FF8080812BAFFE3B012BCB0932095E3A/integra_publ_lourdes_bandeira.pdf
http://acesso.mte.gov.br/data/files/FF80...
; Farah, 2006Farah, M. F. S. (2006). Gender and Public Policy. Estudos Feministas, 12, 47-71. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3324947?origin=crossref
https://www.jstor.org/stable/3324947?ori...
; Muntean, 2013Muntean, S. C. (2013). Wind beneath my wings: policies promoting high-growth oriented women entrepreneurs. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 5(1), 36-59. https://doi.org/10.1108/17566261311305201
https://doi.org/10.1108/1756626131130520...
).

Research implications

By analyzing the association between gender policies and business creation by women, based on two legal natures - SSLP and limited liability company -, one finds some possibilities for further studies.

Firstly, there is enough room for more exploration about gender policies and entrepreneur women in other Brazilian states, by having in mind different contexts that can influence the results.

Secondly, still, by taking into account the different Brazilian contexts, researchers can deepen the analysis applied to the association between gender policies and business creation by women by exploring other company types, such as female individual micro-entrepreneurs.

Thirdly, assumingly, those interested in investigations related to business creation by women and to the measures to support them, seek to explore other groups of entrepreneur women and other socioeconomic profiles, given their different needs. Therefore, this is a way to get results capable of reinforcing the elaboration and implementation of more effective actions in this field.

The present study can trigger practical implications in the entrepreneurship field, mainly for governmental managers, who can use its results to create really effective gender policies; or as diagnostic to better understand their role and the structure to encourage business creation by women, by driving more assertive efforts to them.

CONCLUSION AND STUDY LIMITATIONS

The aim of the current research was to analyze the effects of gender policies on business creation by women. These policies presented positive relation to female individual entrepreneurs; on the other hand, no influence was observed for women who create business in partnership with others.

Accordingly, it is possible understanding that, by analyzing public policies as the means to encourage women entrepreneurship, one must take into account the differences among these populations, be them the contextual aspects they are inserted in, or the specificities of each group of women. Different needs demand different support actions.

With respect to women who undertake on their own, the present research highlights the relevance of having gender policies to help them overcoming a whole series of barriers faced by them, among them: discrimination. Besides, initiatives can fulfil access to education needs, as well as promote equality, health and safety. These actions, in their turn, can ensure more autonomy and women empowerment, since they will allow women to identify new opportunities in the labor market, and to feel encouraged to undertake.

Limitations of the present study are related to the used databases. MUNIC (2018) provides cross-sectional information, but it is not too deep in temporal terms. Most of the time, it is also limited to qualitative data that cover the existence, or not, of these policies in municipalities.

Another issue to be highlighted lies on the study models, which were limited to the data available. Thus, it was necessary creating the variable “gender policy” based on a set of elements in the MUNIC database.

As for the public CNPJ database, the study limitation was associated with the fact that this database does not inform entrepreneurs’ sex. Therefore, it was necessary making a classification procedure, which was carried out in R software.

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Edited by

Editor-in-Chef1 or Adjunct2:

1 Dr. Edmundo Inácio Júnior https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0137-0778
Univ. Estadual de Campinas, UNICAMP

Associate Editor:

Universidade Paulista, UNIP

Executive1 or Assistant2 Editor:

1 M. Eng. Patrícia Trindade de Araújo

Publication Dates

  • Publication in this collection
    19 July 2024
  • Date of issue
    Sep-Dec 2023

History

  • Received
    18 June 2021
  • Reviewed
    19 Oct 2022
  • Accepted
    02 Dec 2022
  • Published
    29 Sept 2023
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