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Articles • Matéria (Rio J.) 30 • 2025 • https://doi.org/10.1590/1517-7076-RMAT-2024-0703 linkcopy

Open-access Effect of recycled brick sand on mechanical and transfer properties of roller compacted concrete “RCC” used for dams

AuthorshipSCIMAGO INSTITUTIONS RANKINGS

    ABSTRACT

    This study explores the impact of incorporating recycled brick sand as a partial replacement for natural sand on the mechanical and transport properties of roller-compacted concrete (RCC) for dam construction. RCC mixtures were prepared with varying brick sand replacement levels and two different water/cement (W/C) ratios with cement dosages. Workability was assessed using the Vebe apparatus, while compressive and tensile strengths were evaluated at different ages. Additionally, porosity, water permeability, capillary absorption, and thermal conductivity were measured over time. Microstructural was characterized using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS). The results indicate that brick sand has minimal influence on the RCC Vebe time. Compressive strength improves with brick sand incorporation, particularly in the long term, with an optimal substitution level of 25%. However, porosity and sorptivity increase at higher replacement levels, negatively affecting durability. Water permeability and thermal conductivity decrease with greater brick sand content, enhancing RCC’s resistance to fluid penetration and thermal properties. Variations in cement dosage and W/C ratio had a limited impact on the brick sand RCC performance. These findings suggest that partial replacement of natural sand with brick sand can enhance RCC properties while promoting sustainable material reuse in dam construction.

    Keywords:
    Recycled brick sand; Roller Compacted Concrete; Tensile strength; Compressive strength; Thermal conductivity

    1. INTRODUCTION

    The construction industry is currently experiencing a rising demand for aggregates, particularly sand as a typical concrete mix contains from 60 to 80% aggregates. To meet this demand, production has been steadily increasing, resulting in the intensive extraction of natural resources, especially river and sea sands, which poses a significant ecological threat [1, 2]. Consequently, the search for alternative and sustainable materials to replace natural aggregates has become a priority. Each year, the construction and brick-making sectors generate billions of tons of waste, with China alone producing 2.3 billion tons, followed by the European Union and the United States which contribute 800 to 900 million tons collectively [3]. One promising solution for managing demolition waste and conserving natural resources is incorporating recycled materials such as waste brick as aggregate in concrete [4]. This approach not only helps mitigate the environmental impact by reducing CO2 emissions associated with the extraction and transportation of natural aggregates [5, 6] but also aligns with the principles of a circular economy. By adopting such sustainable alternatives, the construction sector can significantly contribute to waste management efforts, addressing a pressing global challenge that has led many countries into a state of “environmental poverty” [7, 8].

    Brick waste was first recycled in 1860. After the Second World War, it was used as recycled aggregate in concrete [9]. Brick is generally made by firing clay at temperatures of between 600 and 900°C, which gives it pozzolanic activity. During combustion, anhydrous aluminosilicates and certain components of the raw material that have not been altered by combustion (SiO2, Al2O3, etc.) are present in the brick. According to ZHAO et al. [10], in addition to portlandite (CH) and calcium silicate hydrate gel (CSH), the hydration products of cement paste and ground brick contain calcium aluminate hydrate gel (CAH) and calcium aluminosilicates hydrate gel (CASH), formed by the pozzolanic reaction. Furthermore, ALIABDO et al. [11] confirmed by microscopy the presence of additional hydrates resulting from the pozzolanic reactivity of fine brick waste.

    Several studies on the use of waste bricks as aggregates in concrete indicated that the mechanical performance is slightly lower compared to concrete made with natural aggregates [12,13,14]. According to SILVA et al. [15], recycled aggregates containing brick, lightweight concrete and clay tile, are not recommended for masonry work. However, research by KHATIB [16] and ALVES et al. [17] demonstrated that incorporating less than 30% brick waste could have a positive effect on the strength of medium-class concrete (strength < 45 MPa). BEKTAS [18] highlighted that the initial mechanical strength of concrete with recycled brick aggregates is closely linked to the mechanical properties of the brick itself. Studies by KHALAF [19], REKHA and POTHARAJU [20] showed that the mechanical behavior of concrete made with brick waste was comparable to that of natural aggregate concrete under varying curing temperatures. Similarly, DEBIEB and KENAI [21] found that the reduction in compressive strength remained insignificant even when brick aggregates constituted up to 75% of the mix. CHEN et al. [22] observed that the high-water absorption of recycled brick aggregates created an “internal hardening effect” that improved concrete properties. UDDIN et al. [23] concluded that the maximum particle size of recycled brick significantly influenced concrete performance, with the splitting tensile strength decreasing when the average particle size exceeded a critical limit. Additionally, AL-KROOM et al. [24] found that using waste brick as a fine filler reduced workability but enhanced compressive strength while lowering thermal conductivity, partly due to brick powder filling the concrete’s pores. In specialized applications, BERECHE and GARCÍA [25] demonstrated that adding 40% refractory brick waste improved concrete’s mechanical strength at high temperatures. Furthermore, SOUZA et al. [26] reported that incorporating up to 80% ceramic brick aggregate could yield good mechanical performance for paving concrete blocks.

    Roller-compacted concrete (RCC) is a low-cement concrete primarily composed of a granular mixture-sand, gravel, and filler-making up over 70% of its volume [27,28,29]. Its use in dam and road construction is driven by economic, productivity, and technical advantages. Unlike conventional fluid concrete, which is poured in place and requires time for formwork removal, RCC is placed in successive layers and compacted with a vibrating roller, allowing for faster and more cost-effective installation [30].

    The use of recycled brick aggregates in roller-compacted concrete (RCC) has been the subject of limited research. TAVAKOLI et al. [31] showed that incorporating of waste bricks in RCC for paving reduced the workability by increasing Vebe time (Vebe-test ASTM C1170), a consequence of the high water absorption of brick waste. However, their study also revealed that replacing up to 25% of sand with brick sand had no adverse effect on the compressive or splitting tensile strengths of RCC. Similarly, ANWAR and ZINA [32] reported that using 100% recycled brick powder as a filler in paving RCC mixtures led to a compressive strength increase of up to 30% at 90 days compared to mixes containing limestone filler. The same study reported that incorporating brick powder reduced the porosity and water absorption of RCC. These promising results highlight the potential of recycled brick waste as a viable substitute for natural aggregates in RCC. PHAM et al. [33] confirmed the feasibility of using recycled brick aggregates in RCC for road construction, though they emphasized the need to limit their content to a maximum of 30% to ensure adequate mechanical performance and durability. Additionally, TERRAD and ABBAS [34] demonstrated that recycled brick powder exhibits excellent pozzolanic reactivity, making it suitable as a partial cement replacement. This not only promotes waste recycling but also contributes to reducing the carbon footprint.

    In this paper, a laboratory-based experimental platform was developed for the preparation and characterization of RCC. The research primarily focused on evaluating the impact of sand replacement (ranging from 0% to 100%) on the workability, mechanical performance as well as water and heat transfer properties of RCC. The objective was to assess the feasibility of using recycled brick waste as a partial substitute for natural sand in RCC for dam construction. This approach aims to reduce the consumption of non-renewable natural aggregates while contributing to environmental sustainability.

    2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

    2.1. Description of materials

    In this experimental study, CEM II 42.5N cement was used. Its chemical composition is presented in Table 1. Four types of gravels with different particle size ranges (3/8, 8/15, 15/25 and 15/50 mm) were incorporated. Their physical characteristics are given in Table 2 and their particle size curves, determined through sieving according to standard NF EN 933–1 [35], are presented in Figure 1. In addition, two types of sand were employed (Figure 2): natural river sand (0/6 mm) sourced locally and recycled brick sand “BS” obtained by crushing and sieving clay brick waste from nearby brickworks. The recycled aggregate (brick sand) was processed to match the particle size distribution of the natural sand. Its chemical composition is presented in Table 1. Their particle size curves are shown in Figure 1, while their main characteristics are provided in Table 3. A Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) image of a brick sand grain (Figure 3) reveals its angular shape and highly rough surface texture, with irregular edges forming V-shaped slots. Additionally, limestone filler (0/125 µm) with a CaCO3 content of 65.8% and a bulk density of 2600 kg/m3 was incorporated as a filling material. Its grading curve, obtained through sedimentometry test in accordance with the standard [36], is illustrated in Figure 1. Finally, to improve RCC workability, a high water-reducing superplasticizer “SIKA VISCOCRETE TEMPO 12” was used.

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    Table 1
    Chemical composition of cement and brick.
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    Table 2
    Physical characteristics of gravels.
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    Figure 1
    Particle size distribution curve of aggregates. (a) Natural sand; (b) Brick sand “BS”.
    thumbnail of Figure 2
    Figure 2
    Types of sand. (a) Natural sand; (b) Brick sand “BS”.
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    Table 3
    Physical characteristics of sand.
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    Figure 3
    View at SEM of brick sand grain.

    2.2. Formulation of RCC

    A volumetric approach was adopted to formulate the RCC. The aim was to achieve an optimally compacted granular mix. To this end, the proportions of aggregates (gravel, filler, natural sand and/or brick sand) were adjusted to create a well-graded mix that falls within a specified reference particle size range [39] and closely aligns with the Razel-Bec reference particle size curve, ensuring high compactness. The compactness of the mixes was then measured experimentally using a laboratory developed, which applies vibration under a load of 12 kPa (Figure 4) for a compaction duration of 30 seconds.

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    Figure 4
    Compacting device.

    Five (05) different granular mixtures (RCC0%, RCC25%, RCC50%, RCC70% and RCC100%) were prepared by replacing natural sand with recycled brick sand “BS” at rates of 0%, 25%, 50%, 70% and 100%, respectively. Their particle size curves are shown in Figure 5, while their compactness, measured experimentally, ranges from 0.846 and 0.867. Based on the compactness values, cement dosage and the selected W/C ratio, the volume of the different components is calculated using a volumetric approach. For this study, two groups of RCC mixtures were formulated:

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    Figure 5
    Particle size distribution curves of granular mixtures.

    • The RCCI with 130 kg/m3 cement with W/C ratio of 0.85,

    • The RCCII with 170 kg/m3 cement with W/C ratio of 0.75.

    The mix proportions for RCCI and RCCII are detailed in Table 4. It is important to note that while the materials and formulation parameters used in this study (such as the type of brick and cement, as well as the selected W/C ratio range) are limited, they were chosen to be representative of RCC mixtures currently used in dam construction.

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    Table 4
    Formulations of the studied RCC.

    2.3. Samples preparation and tests

    The RCC mixtures were prepared in a concrete mixer following a two-stage process. First, the dry ingredients were mixed for 60 seconds. Then, water and superplasticizer were added, followed by an additional 180 seconds of mixing. After preparation, the workability of the RCC was measured using a Vebe apparatus in accordance to the ASTM C1170 [40], as illustrated in Figure 6. To ensure consistent workability, the amount of water absorbed by the aggregates was accounted for and incorporated into the mix.

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    Figure 6
    Vebe apparatus.

    Cylindrical (160 mm in height and 320 mm in diameter) and cubic (150 mm in side) specimens were prepared in lab. The concrete was poured in three layers for cylindrical molds and two layers for cubic molds, with each layer compacted using an electric vibrating hammer equipped with a rod and compaction plate, accordance with ASTM C 1435 (Figure 7a). The molds were covered with plastic film for protection and the samples were demolded 24 hours after casting. All RCC specimens were then kept in water at 20 ± 2°C until the designated testing age.

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    Figure 7
    Preparation of test specimens (a) Vibrating hammer; (b) Cutting out specimens.
    2.3.1. Water porosity

    Water porosity was carried out on cylindrical samples (50 mm height H and Ø160), sawn from cylindrical specimens (160/320 mm) which were sawn from larger cylindrical specimens (160 × 320 mm), as illustrated in Figure 7b. The samples were dried at 105°C until reaching a constant mass (Δm < 0.1%) and then immersed in water until full saturation. The porosity measurement was performed using hydrostatic weighingat 28, 90, and 365 days, according to the NF P18–459 standard [41].

    2.3.2. Microstructural examination

    To examine the morphology and elemental properties of the studied RCCs, a surface samples (3–4 cm2) from RCCII0 and RCCII50% were prepared and analyzed using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) after 360 days of curing. SEM uses a focused electron beam to generate signals from the sample surface, enabling detailed observation of its structural morphology. Elemental composition was determined through EDS, with spectral data integrated into the SEM images for comprehensive analysis.

    2.3.3. Compressive strength

    The compressive strength test was carried out on 150 mm cubic samples in accordance with EN 12390–3 [42] at 7, 28, 90 and 365 days of wet curing.

    2.3.4. Splitting tensile strength

    In accordance with EN12390–6 [43], the splitting tensile strength test was carried out on 320 × 160 mm cylindrical specimens after 7, 28, 90 and 365 days of wet curing.

    2.3.5. Capillary absorption

    The Capillary absorption of RCC is influenced by two key factors: its porosity and the rate of capillary rise relative to pore diameter. The test follows the EN 13057 [44] standard and is conducted on cylindrical specimens (H = 50 mm and Ø 160). Before testing, the samples were dried at 105°C until a constant mass was achieved (Δm < 0.1%). To prevent lateral absorption, the specimen surfaces were coated with epoxy resin. The specimens were then placed on supports, with the water level maintained at a constant height of 3 mm above the support. Mass measurements were recorded at predefined intervals: 15, 30, 60, 120, 240, 360, and 480 minutes.

    2.3.6. Water penetration under pressure

    Water permeability is assessed following the EN 12390–8 [45] standard by measuring the axial water penetration depth in a 150 mm cubic specimen under controlled pressure. After being dried at 105°C until a constant mass was reached, the sample was exposed to a continuous water pressure of 5 bar for 48 hours. The water depth was measured after performing a splitting test. The experiment was done after 28, 90 and 365 days of wet curing.

    2.3.7. Thermal conductivity

    Thermal conductivity was measured using the heating wire method in accordance with the NF EN 993–15 [46] standard. A CT meter was employed to estimate the thermal conductivity of RCC by tracking temperature variations recorded by a probe placed between two stacked samples, as illustrated in Figure 8. The cylindrical specimens (160 mm in diameter, 50 mm in height) were pre-dried at 50°C until a constant mass was achieved (Δm < 0.1%). Thermal conductivity measurements were were taken at 28, 90 and 365 days.

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    Figure 8
    CT meter unit.

    3. RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION

    3.1. Vebe-time

    The results shown in Figure 9 indicate that beyond a 25% substitution of natural sand with brick sand (“BS”), the Vebe time increases as the substitution rate rises. Specifically, for BS replacement levels between 50% and 100%, the increase in Vebe time ranges from 5.31 and 31.58% for RCCI and from 5.26 and 26.32% for RCCII. This increase can be attributed to the high water absorption capacity of the BS used. Furthermore, aggregate shape plays a significant role in the rheological behavior of concrete, as angular aggregates tend to reduce fluidity compared to round ones [47, 48]. Research by LIU et al. [49] and SINGH et al. [50] finding, concluding that the incorporation of brick aggregates into concrete necessitates additional water to compensate for the resulting loss of workability. Despite the variation in the Vebe time, the overall impact remains slight from the practical standpoint for RCC application. In fact, all RCC mixtures examined in this study maintain Vebe times within the acceptable range for dam construction [51].

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    Figure 9
    Vebe-time of RCC.

    3.2. Water porosity

    Table 5 shows the porosity results at different ages (28, 90 and 365 days) for RCCI and RCCII concretes. In this Table, Pw1 and Pw2 are respectively the porosity values of sample 1 and 2, whereas PwA is the porosity average value. The results clearly show that porosity decreases over time but increases with higher BS content. For RCCI mixtures, it can be seen that the porosity of RCCI25% is similar to that of RCCI0, at all ages. However, at 28 days, replacement rates from 50% to 100 lead to porosity increases ranging from 21.28 to 54.68% compared with that of the reference RCC. After 90 days, porosity increases of up to 65.66% are observed for BS substitution levels exceeding 50%. Although this trend persists at 365 days, the increase becomes less pronounced, reaching a maximum of 50.45%. The RCCII mixtures exhibit a similar trend, though with slightly lower porosity values. For example, after 28 days the increase in porosity is 26.73%, 35.14%, 48.14% and 66.65% for 25%, 50%, 70% and 100% BS, respectively. Over the long term (90 and 365 days), this trend continues, with the maximum porosity increase reaching 62% for RCCII100% compared with RCCII0.

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    Table 5
    Evolution of porosity according to RCC type.

    It is worth noting that RCCI mixtures consistently exhibit higher porosity values than RCCII for the same BS content. This difference is primarily attributed to the higher cement content and lower W/C ratio in RCCII, which results in a denser cementitious matrix and reduced overall porosity.

    The increase in porosity of RCC with recycled aggregate is mainly attributed to the high porosity of BS compared to natural sand. On the other hand, the hydrophilic nature of BS can contribute to pore formation within the matrix by absorbing water from the surrounding areas, which is essential for cement hydration. This process may lead to an increased content of unhydrated cement, thereby reducing the formation of hydrates that create matrix densification [52]. HUANG et al. [53] found that concrete with brick aggregates exhibited higher porosity than reference concrete. Similar results were reported by GONÇALVES et al. [54] who demonstrated that increasing the proportion of brick aggregates systematically led to a rise in porosity.

    3.3. SEM observation and EDS analysis

    The SEM analysis images of the two concretes RCCII0 and RCCII50%, after 365 days of curing are shown in Figure 10. The concrete containing 50% BS displayed a denser structure compared to the reference concrete. EDS analysis identified calcium (Ca) and silicon (Si) as the primary hydrate components, with minor amounts of aluminum (Al) and magnesium (Mg). Additionally, RCCII50% exhibited more pronounced Ca and Si peaks compared to RCCII0. The higher Ca/Si ratio (≈1.52) suggests an increased presence of C-S-H gel in the RCCII50% matrix, likely due to the pozzolanic reaction between brick fines and Portlandite from clinker hydration.

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    Figure 10
    SEM micrograph and EDS after 360 days of wet curing for RCCII at: (a) 0% BS; (b) 50% BS. (a) RCCII0; (b) RCCII50%.

    3.4. Compressive strength

    Figure 11 shows the evolution of compressive strength in RCCI and RCCII mixtures over different curing periods, ranging from 7 and 365 days. Overall, the results indicate a positive influence of the recycled brick aggregate on the compressive strength. In the case of RCC I, at 7 days, a 24.17% strength increase was observed with 25% BS content. However, for higher substitution rates of 50%, 70%, and 100%, a slight reduction in strength was noted compared to the control RCC, though it did not exceed 13.84%. At 28 days, all BS-based RCCs exhibited improved strength relative to RCC made with natural sand, with increases of 47.16%, 14.49%, 8.76%, and 18% for 25%, 50%, 70%, and 100% BS, respectively. This trend persisted over the long term, with strength gains ranging from 4.02% to 39% at 90 days and from 13% to 38% at 365 days. The highest performance was achieved with a 25% BS substitution.

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    Figure 11
    Evolution of the compressive strength for: (a) RCCI; (b) RCCII.

    For RCCII concretes, similar trends were observed at an early age (7 days), except for the mix with 100% BS, which showed a slight decrease of 2.83%. From 28 to 365 days, the positive impact of BS became more pronounced, particularly at 25% and 50% substitution levels, where strength gains ranged from 18% to 31.46%. At these same ages, mixtures with 70% to 100% BS showed only a slight yet positive effect on compressive strength. Notably, RCCII mixes demonstrated significantly higher compressive strengths than RCCI mixes for the same BS content. This difference is attributed to an increase in cement dosage (from 130 to 170 kg/m3) and a reduction in the W/C ratio (from 0.85 to 0.75) in RCCII mixes.

    The enhancement in compressive strength can be attributed to the improved compactness of the granular mixture facilitated by the presence of brick fines in the brick sand. These same fines contain a significant amount of silica (SiO2) and alumina (Al2O3) which have the potential to react with calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) from the clinker hydration forming additional CSH. Moreover, the interfacial transition zone plays a crucial role in the mechanical strength development of concrete. In mixtures incorporating brick sand, the presence of reactive fines within this zone acts as a pozzolan, increasing density and enhancing overall strength [55]. Studies by NAVRATILOVA and ROVNANIKOVA [56] and ALIABDO et al. [11] have shown that that brick powder incorporation improves both early and long-term compressive strength due to its pozzolanic activity. Similar results were reported by ZHAO et al. [57].

    3.5. Tensile splitting strength

    Figure 12 uncovers the evolution of splitting tensile strength of RCCI and RCCII concretes. Concerning these results, for the RCCI mixtures, after 7 days of curing, a strength increase of 18.75% and 13.54% was observed for 25% and 50% BS, respectively, while higher BS contents (70% and 100%) resulted in reductions of 17.71% and 28%. At 28 and 90 days, BS had a positive effect on tensile strength, with increases reaching approximately 60% at 28 days and 66% at 90 days for 100% BS substitution. In the long term (365 days), this positive effect persisted, with tensile strength increasing by around 30% for 100% BS.

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    Figure 12
    Evolution of the tensile strength by splitting for: (a) RCCI; (b) RCCII.

    For RCCII mixes, a slightly different trend was observed. At 7 and 28 days, the strength of the concrete with 25% BS remained comparable to that of the control concrete. However, for BS contents between 50% and 100%, strength reductions of 40% at 7 days and 29% at 28 days were noted. The beneficial effect of BS became evident only after 90 days of wet curing, particularly at the 25% substitution rate, which showed a 27.1% strength increase at 365 days. Additionally, strength increase from 5% to 9% was observed for concretes with 50% to 100% BS at 90 and 365 days.

    The relatively early-age strength of RCC with high BS content may be due to the lower strength of BS compared to the natural sand. However, this negative effect diminishes over time. In the long term, the observed improvement in tensile strength can be linked to enhanced matrix compactness and a stronger interfacial transition zone between the hydrated cement paste and the aggregates. This is partly due to the fine particles from the clay brick [48] and the rough texture of brick sand grains (Figure 3), which promote better bonding with the cement paste. Microcracking in the interfacial region is a key factor in concrete failure under tension [51, 58]. Additionally, the pozzolanic activity of brick fines contributes to a more refined matrix microstructure [59], further enhancing tensile strength. TAVAKOLI et al. [31] reported that incorporating 25% recycled brick aggregate in paving RCC resulted in increased splitting tensile strength.

    3.6. Capillary absorption

    Figure 13 presents the sorptivity coefficient for RCCI and RCCII mixes as a function of BS percentage, after 28, 90 and 365 days of wet curing. For RCCI, substitution rates of 25% and 50% BS had no significant effect on sorptivity at any age. However, higher BS contents (70% and 100%) increased sorptivity by 33.66% and 38.61% at 28 days and by 24.68% and 48.1% at 90 days, respectively. In the long term (365 days), the negative effect of BS on capillary absorption diminished, with sorptivity increasing by only 11.41% and 25.50% for 70% and 100% BS, respectively, compared with the control RCC.

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    Figure 13
    Sorptivity coefficient for: (a) RCCI; (b) RCCII.

    For RCCII, a slightly different trend was observed. While 25% BS had no effect on sorptivity, higher BS contents (50%, 70%, and 100%) led to increases ranging from 21.39% to 60.24% at 28 days, and from 14.59% to 32.12% after 90 days of curing. Even at 365 days, RCCs with BS maintained higher sorptivity than the reference RCC, though the increase was more moderate, ranging from 12% to 31% for BS contents between 50% and 100%.

    The water absorption of concrete results from the combined absorption of the cement paste and aggregates. Although roller-compacted concrete (RCC) is typically highly compact, its matrix may still contain small interconnected pores. The addition of brick sand can alter void distribution, increasing the connectivity of the capillary pore network and affecting capillary absorption kinetics [60]. On the other hand, the pozzolanic reaction in the presence of fine brick particles contributes to the formation of additional CSH, which can positively influence sorptivity by reducing the average pore diameter of the cement matrix [61, 62]. However, this beneficial effect may be counteracted by the high porosity of brick particles [63], as observed in RCCI mixtures with more than 50% brick sand and RCCII mixtures with 70% brick sand. YOUNIS et al. [64] reported that concretes containing crushed bricks exhibit higher sorptivity than those with natural aggregates. Similar findings by KENAI and DEBIEB [65] confirm the negative impact of crushed brick sand on concrete sorptivity.

    3.7. Water penetration under pressure

    Figure 14 illustrates the variation in in water penetration depth under pressure as a function of BS content for the two RCC types, after 28, 90 and 365 days. Regarding to these results, it appears that water penetration decreases with increasing BS rate. This positive effect was observed in RCCI and RCCII, at all ages. At 28 days, RCCI exhibited reductions of 12.28%, 15.09%, 26.32%, and 43.86% for BS rates of 25%, 50%, 70% and 100%, respectively. This reduction became more pronounced at 90 and 365 days, reaching 52.65% for RCCI with 100% recycled brick aggregate, compared to the reference RCC. RCCII, both with and without BS, recorded lower penetration depths than RCCI, as expected. A similar trend was observed regarding the effect of BS content on RCCII, with reductions in water penetration ranging from 5% to 31% at 28 days for BS rates between 25% and 100%. Over time, the results further improved. Particularly, for RCCII with 100% BS, the water penetration depth decreased to 5 cm at 90 days and just 4 cm at 365 days, while in RCC without BS, water penetration depth exceeded 6 cm.

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    Figure 14
    Evolution of permeability under pressure for: (a) RCCI; (b) RCCII.

    The presence of fine brick particles can improve the pore structure through a potential pozzolanic reaction, particularly in the transition zone as observed in the SEM analysis (Figure 10). This may explain the observed decrease in the water permeability of RCC with BS [28, 66]. RESIN et al. [61] reported that the water penetration depth in concretes containing brick sand is approximately 44% lower than in reference concretes. It is important to note that the trend observed for water penetration differs from that of capillary absorption (Figure 11). This discrepancy may be attributed to differences in water transfer mechanisms: capillary absorption and pressure-driven penetration. Water penetration under pressure is primarily influenced by the matrix microstructure, including hydrate composition and pore size, which directly affect density. In contrast, sorptivity appears to be more impacted by the porosity of the granular material [67].

    3.8. Thermal conductivity

    Figure 15 presents the thermal conductivity results, showing a decreasing trend as the BS content increases. In the RCCI mixtures, at 28 days thermal conductivity decreased by 9.84%, 19.88%, 27.95% and 32.68% for BS contents of 25%, 50%, 70% and 100%, respectively, compared to RCCI0. This trend persisted at 90 days, with reductions ranging from 6.36% to 31.78%, reaching 31% at 365 days, for 100% BS. The similar pattern was observed in the RCCII mixtures, where thermal conductivity decreased by 4 to 38% for 25 to 100% recycled aggregate, after 28 days of ripening. At 90 days, the conductivity coefficient dropped to 1.42 W/m·K, and at 365 days, it further declined, reaching 1.29 W/m·K for RCCII with 70% BS.

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    Figure 15
    Thermal conductivity evolution for: (a) RCCI; (b) RCCII.

    The decrease in thermal conductivity can be attributed to the low thermal conductivity of the brick itself (0.12 to 0.18 w/m.k) [68]. Furthermore, the high porosity of the brick aggregates likely contributes to this reduction by limiting heat diffusion. This relationship is clearly reflected in Figure 16, which shows the correlation between thermal conductivity and porosity across all studied mixes (RCCI and RCCII). BRAYMAND and GRANDGEROGE [69] reported a similar correlation demonstrating that the thermal conductivity decreases as concrete porosity increases. Comparable findings were observed by ATYIA et al. [47] who recorded a 36.5% to 56.5% reduction in conductivity when brick aggregates were used. AL-KROOM et al. [24] also noted a low thermal conductivity (around 0.7 w/m.K) for concrete mixes containing 30% brick aggregate.

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    Figure 16
    Correlation between conductivity and porosity.

    Increasing the cement dosage (from 130 to 170 kg/m3) and the reduction the W/C ratio (from 0.75 to 0.85) appear to cause a slight rise in in thermal conductivity. However, this effect remains marginal, especially at high BS contents. The increase in conductivity can be attributed to the higher density of the mixture [69].

    4. CONCLUSION

    This study investigated the effect of recycled brick sand on the mechanical properties and durability of roller-compacted concrete used for dam construction. The findings support the following conclusions:

    • The incorporation of BS increased the Vebe time of RCC by 5% to 32%. However, despite this increase, the Vebe time for all studied RCC mixtures remained within the acceptable range for dam construction (15 to 25 seconds).

    • Microstructural analysis revealed a high-density matrix and increased CSH gel formation in RCC with recycled sand. This enhancement, attributed to the pozzolanic reaction, suggests improved sealing and long-term durability of RCC incorporating brick sand.

    • The addition of BS positively influenced both compressive and splitting tensile strength in RCC, with recorded increases ranging from 8% to 47%. The optimal performance was observed at a 25% BS substitution. This improvement is attributed to a more compact matrix and a denser interfacial transition zone.

    • The incorporation of BS increases the porosity and capillary absorption of RCC. However, this negative effect becomes significant only at substitution levels between 50% and 70%. The rise in porosity, attributed to the brick’s porous structure, may affect the long-term durability of RCC.

    • The addition of BS positively impacted the water permeability of RCC, reducing water penetration depth by up to 52.5% in RCC with 100% BS.

    • The incorporation of BS consistently reduced the thermal conductivity of RCC, with decreases of approximately 32% in RCCI and 24% in RCCII. This effect, attributed to the porosity and low thermal conductivity of brick, influences the heat transfer kenetics of RCC.

    • Both RCCI and RCCII exhibited nearly identical behavior in response to brick sand addition across all examined mechanical and transport properties. Variations in cement dosage and W/C ratio did not significantly alter the influence of brick sand on RCC performance.

    The outcomes of this study are highly promising, confirming the feasibility of incorporating brick waste into RCC for dam construction. To further expand this approach, future research could explore the influence of brick type and composition, as well as optimize RCC mixtures for other applications, such as road construction. Additionally, investigating the use of other recycled materials in RCC could provide further sustainability benefits.

    5. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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    Publication Dates

    • Publication in this collection
      07 Apr 2025
    • Date of issue
      2025

    History

    • Received
      17 Oct 2024
    • Accepted
      25 Feb 2025
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