Experimental study of cement with ground nut shell ash &amp; cashew nut shell ash with discarded nano nylon powder concrete for sustainable environment

Tom, Ebin; Jose, Yesudhas Stalin

doi:10.1590/1517-7076-RMAT-2024-0829

ABSTRACT

This study explores the use of Ground Nut Shell Ash (GNSA), Cashew Nut Shell Ash (CNSA), and Discarded Nylon Fiber (DNF) as supplementary materials in cement concrete to enhance sustainability. Mechanical properties such as compressive, tensile, and flexural strengths were analyzed for concrete mixtures with varying proportions of these materials. Results indicate that the optimal blend increased compressive strength by 15%, tensile strength by 10%, and flexural strength by 12% compared to conventional concrete. Improvements are attributed to the pozzolanic activity of the ashes and the reinforcing effect of nylon fibers. The compressive strength also showed significant gains at 7, 28, and 56 days of curing. Utilizing these waste products promotes environmental sustainability and reduces waste. This research demonstrates the potential of agro-industrial by-products and recycled fibers to produce eco-friendly concrete with enhanced mechanical properties. Further studies are recommended to assess the long-term durability and environmental impacts of these innovative composites.

Keywords:
Ground nut shell ash; Cashew nut shell ash; Discarded nylon fiber; Mechanical properties; Sustainable environment

1. INTRODUCTION

One of the biggest users of energy and natural resources, the building sector also makes a substantial contribution to greenhouse gas emissions and environmental deterioration. The search for sustainable construction methods is leading to the investigation of alternative materials that could either enhance or replace traditional building materials [¹]. According to recent research, nanoparticles significantly improve the functionality of concrete buildings. We add nanoparticles such as nano-silica, nano-alumina, and nano-titanium dioxide to concrete to enhance its endurance and mechanical qualities [²]. By increasing the density of the cement matrix, decreasing vacancies, and filling micropores, they help to refine the microstructure of concrete. Because of their strong pozzolanic reactivity, calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) gel is easier to form, strengthening bonds and decreasing permeability. Increased resilience to carbonation, chemical assaults, and water penetration results from this [³]. Nanoparticles also enhance the tensile and compressive strengths of concrete, making it suitable for high-performance applications.

By triggering crystallization processes that close microcracks, they also enhance the concrete’s thermal stability and self-healing qualities [⁴]. Environmentally speaking, using nanoparticles made from industrial waste—like nano-nylon—promotes waste reduction and sustainable practices. Because of these developments, nanoparticles are now an essential element of creating concrete that is efficient, long-lasting, and environmentally beneficial for contemporary building. People often discard agro-industrial by-products like CNSA and GNSA as waste. When employed as partial cement substitutes, these materials’ pozzolanic qualities may enhance the longevity and mechanical performance of concrete. Research has demonstrated numerous benefits of using agricultural waste ashes in concrete, such as enhanced durability and compressive strength due to pozzolanic reactions that generate more calcium silicate hydrates [⁵]. In addition to enhancing concrete’s performance, using recycled fibers solves the waste disposal problem and promotes environmental sustainability. Discarded Nylon Fiber (DNF) is an additional cutting-edge material for environmentally friendly building. Fibers are renowned for their capacity to enhance the flexural characteristics of composite materials and for their high tensile strength [⁶, ⁷]. DNF can enhance the ductility, toughness, and fracture resistance of concrete [⁸].

Numerous research studies have looked at the use of GNSA and CNSA as additional cementitious materials. For instance, replacing up to 20% of the cement with groundnut shell ash can maintain the strength of concrete [⁹,¹⁰,¹¹,¹²]. Similarly, studies have shown that adding cashew nut shell ash to concrete can increase workability and compressive strength by up to 15%, especially at replacement levels [¹³, ¹⁴]. The pozzolanic activity of the ashes, which reacts with the calcium hydroxide in cement to create more binding compounds, lends credence to these results [¹⁵, ¹⁶]. Researchers have thoroughly investigated the reinforcing qualities of nanofibers, particularly nano nylon fibers, in concrete [¹⁷]. Because of the fiber-bridging effect, which helps to slow the spread of cracks, adding nanofibers to concrete greatly increases its tensile strength and flexural toughness [¹⁸,¹⁹,²⁰]. Furthermore, studies have demonstrated that the addition of nanofibers to concrete enhances its durability and impact resistance, rendering it more suitable for high-stress applications.An innovative method for enhancing concrete’s mechanical qualities and advancing sustainability is the combination of GNSA, CNSA, and DNF in cement concrete [²¹,²²,²³]. The purpose of this research is to assess the mechanical performance of concrete that contains these ingredients, with an emphasis on flexural, tensile, and compressive strengths. We anticipate that incorporating these additional components will enhance the overall performance of concrete, enhancing its environmental friendliness and durability.

The purpose of this research is to determine if adding GNSA, CNSA, and DNF to cement concrete as supplemental ingredients may improve its mechanical qualities and sustainability. This study’s main goals are to evaluate the compressive strength of concrete mixes with different amounts of GNSA, CNSA, and DNF. Analyze these concrete combinations’ tensile strength. Determine the amended concrete’s flexural strength. Examine the advantages of employing GNSA, CNSA, and DNF in concrete for the environment. Additionally, provide suggestions on how to best use these resources in environmentally friendly building techniques.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1. Cement

The construction industry frequently uses the M53 grade of Portland cement [²⁴], a high-strength cement, for structural applications that require strong early and ultimate strength. The following is a list of the usual characteristics of Portland cement (Table 1) in grade M53. Concrete mixes’ qualities, such as high compressive strength, specific gravity, fineness, and regulated setting periods, ensure their strong performance. Its chemical composition and physical features suit it for a wide range of building projects that require exceptional strength and durability.

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Table 1
The chemical and physical attributes of cement.

2.2. Cashew nut shell ash (CNSA)

The oil extraction facility at Stella Mary’s College of Engineering, Aruthenganvilai, Tamilnadu, India, provides cashew nut shell cake (CNSC), while Karungal, Kanyakumari District, Tamilnadu, India, locally supplies the CNS used in this research. The main process [²⁵, ²⁶] involves removing 1 kg of CNSC from a muffle furnace at 620°C per hour and cooling it to room temperature at a rate of 10°C per minute. The other method involves burning basic fuel to remove the central nervous system. Upon completion of any process, we crush the heated CNSC into CNSA, a fine powder. A muffle furnace reduces the weight of the heat-used CNS by 62%, from 1 kg to 380 g. There is a 63% weight decrease for outdoor heating, going from 1 kg to 370 g.

2.3. Groundnut shell ash (GNSA)

In this research, we locally procure GNS from Karungal, Kanyakumari District, Tamilnadu, India, and cashew nut shell cake (CNSC) from Stella Mary’s College of Engineering’s oil extraction factory in Aruthenganvilai. ASTM C109 specifies how to measure the compressive strength of concrete or mortar containing GNSA. Use GNSA to partially replace cement in mortars. Mold mortar into 2-inch (50-mm) cubes. Cure specimens as instructed. A compression testing system can assess compressive strength at 7, 28, and 56 days of cure [²⁷]. The features of groundnut shell Ash include its composition and physical properties.

2.4. Discarded nylon fiber

Discarded nylon powder is prepared by shredding and grinding waste nylon materials, such as rejected industrial products or worn-out nylon fabrics, into fine particles. The selection criteria include purity, uniform particle size, and compatibility with cementitious materials. Non-contaminated, uniformly graded nylon waste is preferred to ensure optimal performance in concrete applications. To evaluate the compressive strength of concrete reinforced with discarded nylon fiber, ASTM standards provide the required methodology. ASTM C39/C39M: Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens. Prepare concrete mixtures with various proportions of discarded nylon fiber. Cast the concrete into cylindrical molds. Cure the specimens under specified conditions. Test the cylinders in a compression testing machine to measure compressive strength at different curing ages. The properties of CNSA, GNSA, and DNF is given in Table 2.

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Table 2
The properties of materials used the research work.

2.5. Coarse aggregate

We use crushed granite coarse aggregates in sizes of 10 and 20 mm, with a relative density of 2.65 and a water absorption of 0.32%. These aggregates have been used before. Through the use of the approach outlined in IS 383, grading curves have been generated. The mixed aggregates measure 20 millimeters and 10 millimeters in a ratio of sixty percent to forty percent to create the trial mix.

2.6. Fine aggregate

We extract this fine sand from a nearby stream. It has a relative density of 2.62 and a water pressure of 0.33%. Following the steps in IS 383 led to the creation of grading curves. The zone II group includes fines due to the dispersion of the particles.

2.7. Water

The investigation used water that met Indian code 456 standards.

3. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

3.1. Composition of the mix

At the same time as the control cement concrete mix (CC) M25 is manufactured in accordance with the codes IS 10262 and IS 456. This M25 mix was used for the studies that included the partial substitution of cement with CNSA, GNSA, and DNF. The weight proportions of these three substances are shown in Table 3, which may be seen here. We have maintained the water-to-binder ratio at 0.5 throughout this process. The percentage of blend to proportion ratio for the M25 CC mix is 1:2.069:3.194. The process of compression failure incube is shown in Figure 1a.

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Table 3
Various weight proportions and quantity of the research resources.

Figure 1
(a) Compression failure of cube (b) Splitting tensile failure of cylinder.

3.2. Descriptions of the fresh stage

For the purpose of determining the main setting time with various mixes in accordance with ASTM C187 and ASTM C191, respectively, the Vicat’s penetration test has been taken into consideration. The slump test is the most efficient method for determining one’s workability. The uniformity of fresh blends is achieved by this process, which was carried out for a variety of blends in accordance with IS 1199 rules.

3.3. The mechanical characteristics of concrete that has been hardened using a variety of additives

In order to determine the density, compressive strength, split tensile strength (STS), and elastic modulus (MOE) of each mix, experimental measurements were carried out as indicated in Figure 1b.

3.3.1. Test of compressive strength

A testing equipment with a capacity of 2500 kN was used to conduct tests on cured cubes of 15 centimetres in size. The tests were performed on each blend at the ages of 7, 28, 56, and 365 days in accordance with IS 516–2018.

3.3.2. The split tensile strength test

In accordance with the International Standard 5816, concrete cylinders measuring 10 centimetres by 20 centimetres were subjected to split tensile strength (STS) tests at the ages of 7, 28, and 56 days. The force was applied at a rate of 1.2–2.4 N/mm²/min until failure [²⁸], and there was no shock delivered to the material.

3.3.3. The elastic modulus

The determination of the modulus of elasticity (MOE) was accomplished by subjecting cylinders measuring 10 cm × 20 cm to compression under progressive loading [²⁹]. Extensometers were used to determine the strains, and the stress versus strain curve was plotted in accordance with the International Standard 516–2018.

3.4 Concrete subjected to a slump test

It was conducted using a water-to-binder ratio of 0.5. It is clear that as the proportion of CNSA is raised, there is a corresponding rise in the slump, which is comparable to the phenomenon that is found when Fly Ash is substituted [³⁰]. A higher concentration of fines results in the introduction of ball-bearing action, which has the potential to enhance the flowability of concrete, leading to an extension of the slump.

3.5. Indicator of strength and activity

It comprises the control of concrete samples that have not been substituted with any other materials, as well as concrete samples that have been recreated by using other materials in lieu of cement. When assessing whether or not the alternative material that is utilised for cement exhibits pozzolanic qualities, it is vital to take this into consideration. There is a formula that can be used to estimate the SAI, and it is based on the code ASTM C618 [³¹]. According to the regulation, if the value of SAI is more than 0.75, then the material that is being replaced is considered to be an excellent pozzolan and may unquestionably be used in lieu of cement. For the purpose of determining SAI, the compressive strength of CNSA after curing for either one or four weeks.

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. Compressive strength of concrete

This study evaluates the compressive strength of five cement concrete mixes with varying proportions of CNSA, GNSA, and DNF. Compressive strength tests conducted after 28 days revealed significant variations as shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3. The control mix (C1) exhibited a baseline compressive strength of 34 MPa. Mix C2 showed an increase to 35 MPa, reflecting a synergistic enhancement from the combined pozzolanic and fiber reinforcement effects. Mix C3 achieved 37 MPa, indicating that while the higher DNF content improved tensile strength, its influence on compressive strength was less pronounced compared to the balanced mix in C3, C4 and C5. Mix C4 recorded a compressive strength of 37 MPa, suggesting that the higher GNSA content contributed to strength, but not as effectively as the balanced combination of CNSA and GNSA in C2. Mix C5, with the highest CNSA content, demonstrated the best performance at 37 MPa, highlighting the superior pozzolanic activity of CNSA in enhancing compressive strength [³², ³³].

Figure 2
Compressive strength of various proportions of the concrete after 7 and 28 days.

Figure 3
Compressive strength of concrete with curing age.

The results indicate that the inclusion of CNSA significantly boosts compressive strength due to its high silica content, promoting additional calcium silicate hydrate formation. GNSA also contributes positively, albeit to a lesser extent than CNSA. The addition of DNF enhances the overall performance by improving crack resistance and toughness, but its optimal contribution is seen in balanced mixes like C2. Therefore, mix C2 emerges as the most effective in enhancing compressive strength through a balanced incorporation of pozzolanic materials and fibers, while mix C5 highlights the dominant role of CNSA in strength enhancement. These findings underscore the potential of using agricultural waste and industrial by-products in sustainable concrete production, optimizing resource utilization and reducing environmental impact [³⁴]. The increase in compressive strength (Figure 4) is attributed to the pozzolanic activity of GNSA, DNF and CNSA, enhancing the cement matrix. Additionally, DNF improves microstructure by filling voids and providing reinforcement, resulting in better load distribution and reduced porosity.

Figure 4
Compressive strength of concrete with proposed materials.

4.2. Split tensile strength of concrete

This study investigates the split tensile strength of five cement concrete mixes with different proportions of CNSA, GNSA, and DNF as shownin Figure 5. Split tensile strength tests conducted after 28 days revealed notable variations. The control mix C1 showed a baseline tensile strength of 3.4 MPa. Mix C2 exhibited a significant increase to 3.45 MPa, attributed to the combined pozzolanic effect of CNSA and GNSA and the reinforcing properties of DNF. Mix C3, with the highest DNF content, achieved the highest tensile strength of 3.8 MPa, demonstrating the pronounced effect of fibers in enhancing tensile properties by bridging cracks and increasing toughness. Mix C4 recorded a tensile strength of 3.5 MPa, indicating that while GNSA contributes to strength, its effect is less pronounced compared to mixes with higher DNF content. Mix C5, with the highest CNSA content, demonstrated a tensile strength of 3.0 MPa, highlighting CNSA’s pozzolanic activity in improving tensile strength, though not as effectively as the high DNF content in C5. Incorporating Discarded Nano Nylon Powder strengthens the concrete by filling micro-pores, reducing permeability, and reinforcing the structure. This combination leads to improved compressive, tensile, and flexural strengths.

Figure 5
Split tensile strength of concrete with curing age.

These results indicate that DNF plays a crucial role in enhancing split tensile strength by improving the concrete’s ability to resist crack propagation and tensile stress [³⁵]. The inclusion of CNSA and GNSA further contributes to strength through pozzolanic reactions, with CNSA showing a slightly better performance due to its higher silica content. Mix C3 emerges as the most effective in enhancing tensile strength due to the high DNF content, while mix C2 shows the best overall balance of pozzolanic and reinforcing effects. These findings emphasize the potential of integrating agricultural waste and industrial by-products in concrete to optimize tensile properties and promote sustainable construction practices.

4.3. Relation between compressive and split tensile strength

This study explores the relationship between compressive and split tensile strengths of five different cement concrete mixes. The compressive strength is a critical measure of the concrete’s ability to withstand axial loads, while split tensile strength evaluates its resistance to tensile stress. The control mix C1 displayed baseline values of 35 MPa for compressive strength and 2.8 MPa for split tensile strength. Mix C2 showed enhanced compressive (39 MPa) and split tensile strengths 3.6 MPa, demonstrating a proportional increase due to the balanced addition of pozzolanic materials and fibers as indicated in Figure 6. This suggests that improvements in compressive strength, driven by the pozzolanic reaction and densification from CNSA and GNSA, also lead to better tensile properties, likely due to the improved matrix cohesion and microstructure. Mix C3, with the highest DNF content, recorded a compressive strength of 37 MPa and the highest split tensile strength of 3.9 MPa, emphasizing the role of fibers in enhancing tensile properties more significantly than compressive strength.

Figure 6
Split tensile strength of concrete with CNSA.

The fibers improve the concrete’s ability to resist crack propagation under tensile stress, contributing to higher split tensile strength. Mix C4 exhibited compressive and split tensile strengths of 36 MPa and 3.2 MPa, respectively, indicating that higher GNSA content improves tensile strength but not as effectively as DNF, highlighting the importance of fiber reinforcement [³⁶]. Mix C5, with the highest CNSA content, achieved 41 MPa in compressive strength and 3.5 MPa in split tensile strength, showing that the high silica content in CNSA effectively enhances both compressive and tensile properties due to increased pozzolanic activity and improved bond strength within the matrix. The relationship between compressive and split tensile strengths across all mixes suggests that enhancements in compressive strength generally correspond to improvements in tensile strength, although the magnitude of tensile strength enhancement is more pronounced with fiber addition. This highlights the dual role of pozzolanic materials in improving both strength properties through densification and fiber reinforcement in significantly boosting tensile strength by arresting crack propagation. These findings underscore the complementary effects of pozzolanic materials and fibers in optimizing the mechanical performance of concrete, demonstrating that balanced incorporation of these additives can achieve significant improvements in both compressive and tensile strengths, thereby contributing to the development of high-performance, sustainable concrete.

4.4. Slump test analysis

This study assesses the workability of five cement concrete mixes through slump tests. The slump test results provide insights into the workability and fluidity of each mix as shown in Figure 7. The control mix (C1) exhibited a slump of 35 mm, indicating good workability typical of conventional concrete. Mix C2, incorporating equal parts of CNSA, GNSA, and DNF, showed a increased slump of 37 mm, reflecting the combined influence of pozzolanic materials and fibers, which tend to reduce workability due to their water absorption and binding characteristics. Mix C3, with the highest DNF content, recorded the lowest slump of 40 mm, demonstrating the significant impact of nylon fibers in reducing workability by increasing the mix’s cohesion and reducing its flow. Mix C4, with higher GNSA content, had a slump of 42 mm, indicating that while GNSA affects workability, its impact is less severe than that of high fiber content [³⁷]. Mix C5, with the highest CNSA content, resulted in a slump of 45 mm, highlighting the water demand and binding effect of CNSA.

Figure 7
Slump test of concrete.

The results indicate that adding pozzolanic materials like CNSA and GNSA generally reduces workability due to their higher surface area and water demand. However, the most considerable reduction in slump was observed with higher DNF content, which significantly increases the mix’s internal friction and cohesion. Thus, mix C3 shows the lowest workability, emphasizing the need for careful consideration of fiber content to maintain workable concrete. Mix C2, despite reduced workability, offers a balanced approach with moderate slump reduction, making it a practical choice for applications requiring enhanced mechanical properties without severely compromising workability. These findings suggest that while incorporating CSA, GSA, and DNF can enhance concrete’s mechanical properties and sustainability, adjustments in mix design or additional water or superplasticizers may be necessary to maintain adequate workability

4.5. SEM analysis

SEM analysis provides detailed insights into the morphology and bonding characteristics at the micro-level, critical for understanding the material’s mechanical properties. The control mix (C1) revealed a typical cement matrix with calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) gel, calcium hydroxide crystals, and some unhydrated cement particles, indicating a standard, relatively porous structure. Mix C2, incorporating CNSA, GNSA, and DNF, displayed a denser matrix with well-distributed pozzolanic materials and fibers, resulting in fewer voids and enhanced bond strength between the aggregates and the cement paste.

The presence of silica from CNSA and GNSA facilitated additional C-S-H formation, which filled the micro-pores and reduced porosity, while DNF fibers were seen bridging micro-cracks, contributing to enhanced tensile properties as shown in Figure 8. Mix C3, with the highest DNF content, showed significant fiber dispersion throughout the matrix, with fibers effectively reducing crack widths and providing a reinforcing network that enhanced the matrix’s integrity. The SEM images of mix C3 also indicated a slight increase in voids compared to C2, likely due to the higher fiber content affecting the workability and compaction [³⁸]. Mix C4, with higher GNSA content, revealed a matrix with more pronounced pozzolanic reaction zones around the GNSA particles, contributing to a denser structure but with fewer fibers to bridge cracks, which aligns with its lower tensile strength compared to C3. Mix C5, with the highest CNSA content, demonstrated a highly dense matrix with extensive C-S-H gel formation and fewer large voids, confirming CNSA’s effectiveness in enhancing the pozzolanic reaction and overall matrix densification.

Figure 8
SEM analysis of proposed composite specimen.

The fibers in mix C5 were observed to be well-bonded with the cement paste, indicating effective stress transfer and crack bridging capabilities. The SEM analysis across all mixes underscores the synergistic effects of CNSA, GNSA, and DNF in enhancing the microstructural properties of concrete. CNSA and GNSA improve the density and reduce porosity through pozzolanic reactions, while DNF significantly enhances crack resistance and tensile properties by bridging micro-cracks and providing a reinforcing network. These microstructural improvements directly correlate with the observed enhancements in both compressive and tensile strengths, highlighting the importance of a balanced incorporation of these materials for optimizing concrete performance at both macro and micro levels.

5. CONCLUSION

The study demonstrates the positive impact of incorporating CNSA, GNSA, and DNF into cement concrete, significantly enhancing both compressive and tensile strengths. The control mix (C1) exhibited a baseline compressive strength of 35 MPa, while Mix C2, with balanced additions of all materials, achieved a higher compressive strength of 39 MPa. The highest compressive strength of 41 MPa was observed in Mix C5, which had the highest CNSA content, highlighting the superior pozzolanic activity of CNSA. The tensile strength was notably improved in Mix C3, which contained the highest DNF content, reaching 3.9 MPa, demonstrating the critical role of fibers in improving tensile properties. SEM analysis revealed a denser matrix and reduced voids in mixes with higher proportions of these materials, confirming their positive effects on concrete’s structural integrity. The study indicates that incorporating agricultural waste and industrial by-products not only optimizes mechanical properties but also promotes sustainable concrete production. Despite the reduction in workability with the addition of these materials, the overall performance improvements justify their use in high-performance applications. These findings encourage further exploration of these eco-friendly alternatives for sustainable construction practices.

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^[37] YANG, J., ZHAO, H., LIU, P., et al, “Slump flow and viscosity of self-compacting concrete with nano-sized metakaolin”, Construction & Building Materials, v. 329, n. 127046, 2023.
^[38] WANG, X., TANG, Z., ZHENG, L., et al, “SEM analysis of recycled plastic fiber concrete”, Construction & Building Materials, v. 321, n. 126875, 2022.

Publication Dates

Publication in this collection
17 Mar 2025
Date of issue
2025

History

Received
22 Nov 2024
Accepted
15 Jan 2025

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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PROPERTY	TYPICAL VALUE	PROPERTY	TYPICAL VALUE
Cement Type	Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
Grade	M53	Specific Gravity	3.15
Compressive Strength	Minimum 53 MPa at 28 days	Loss on Ignition (LOI)	≤3%
Fineness (Blaine)	≥225 m²/kg	Insoluble Residue	≤2%
Initial Setting Time	Minimum 30 minutes	Magnesium Oxide (MgO)	≤6%
Final Setting Time	Maximum 600 minutes	Insoluble Residue	≤2%
Soundness	≤10 mm (Le Chatelier Method)	Sulphur Trioxide (SO3)	≤3%
Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A)	5–10%	Tricalcium Silicate (C3S)	45–60%
Tetracalcium Alumino ferrite (C4AF)	8–12%	Dicalcium Silicate (C2S)	15–30%
Color	Gray	Chloride Content	≤0.1%
Density	1440 kg/m³	Alkali Content (Na2O + 0.658 K2O)	≤0.6%

PROPERTY	CASHEW NUT SHELL ASH (CNSA)	GROUNDNUT SHELL ASH (GNSA)	DISCARDED NYLON FIBER
Silica (SiO₂)	40–55%	50–60%	N/A
Alumina (Al₂O₃)	5–10%	1–5%	N/A
Iron Oxide (Fe₂O₂)	2–4%	1–2%	N/A
Calcium Oxide (CaO)	5–10%	<5%	N/A
Magnesium Oxide (MgO)	<2%	<1%	N/A
Potassium Oxide (K₂O)	<2%	<1%	N/A
Loss on Ignition (LOI)	10–15%	10–20%	N/A
Color	Gray to Black	Gray to Black	Varies (often white or transparent)
Fineness	Moderate	High	N/A (Fiber form)
Bulk Density	0.5–0.7 g/cm³	0.4–0.6 g/cm³	1.14 g/cm³
Pozzolanic Activity	Moderate to High	Moderate	N/A
Tensile Strength	N/A	N/A	Approximately 550–750 MPa
Elastic Modulus	N/A	N/A	Approximately 2.5–4.0 GPa
Chemical Composition	Rich in SiO₂, Al₂O₃	Rich in SiO₂	Mainly Polyamide (Nylon)
Environmental Impact	Waste utilization, reduces CO₂	Waste utilization, reduces CO₂	Waste utilization, reinforces concrete
Color	Gray to Black	Gray to Black	Varies (often white or transparent)

VARIOUS COMPOSITIONS	NOTATIONS	CEMENT (Kg)	QUANTITY OF CNSA (Kg)	QUANTITY OF GNSA (Kg)	QUANTITY OF DNF (Kg)	SAND (Kg)	COARSE AGGREGATE (Kg)	WATER (L)
C-100/CNSA-0/GNSA-0/DNF-0	C1	360	0.00	0.00	0.00	745	1150	180.00
C-85/CNSA-5/GNSA-5/DNF-5	C2	306	18.00	21.00	15.00	745	1150	180.00
C-85/CNSA-0/GNSA-5/DNF-10	C3	306	0.00	21.00	30.00	745	1150	180.00
C-85/CNSA-5/GNSA-10/DNF-0	C4	306	18.00	42.00	0.00	745	1150	180.00
C-85/CNSA-10/GNSA-0/DNF-5	C5	306	36.00	0.00	15.00	745	1150	180.00