Research on fatigue performance and life prediction of steel-concrete composite structural materials

ABSTRACT

Steel-concrete composite structural materials (SCCSM) are extensively used in modern construction due to their high strength, durability, and cost-efficiency. However, accurately predicting their fatigue performance and service life remains challenging, particularly under complex loading conditions. Existing methods for fatigue analysis often fail to address the non-linear mechanical interactions between steel and concrete, leading to imprecise life predictions and inefficient structural designs. To overcome these limitations, this research proposes a comprehensive framework focusing on the mechanical behavior and fatigue performance of SCCSM. The framework integrates advanced modeling techniques, fatigue life prediction models, and experimental validation to account for material heterogeneity and complex loading scenarios. The proposed method utilizes finite element analysis, combined with laboratory testing, to simulate the fatigue behavior of SCCSM under various cyclic loads. It enables accurate identification of critical stress points and material degradation over time. The findings demonstrate that the proposed method significantly enhances the accuracy of fatigue life prediction, improves structural design reliability, and ensures better resource utilization in construction projects. These advancements offer valuable insights for civil engineers and researchers aiming to design safer and longer-lasting composite structures.

Keywords:
Fatigue performance; Steel-concrete composite materials; Life prediction; Mechanical behavior; Structural durability; Finite element analysis

1. INTRODUCTION

Steel-concrete composite structural materials (SCCSM) made the convergence of excellent compressive strength in concrete with tensile strength in steel an integral part of modern construction [¹]. Bridges, skyscrapers, and other critical infrastructure have a huge potential to be significantly aided by SCCSM as they can accommodate more negative environmental impacts, allow greater weights, and allow greater distances [²]. Although SCCSMs are extensively used, predicting their fatigue performance and service life is still challenging [³]. Fatigue, which develops due to continuous cyclic loads, significantly affects the durability and security of such structures.

The conventional approaches to fatigue analysis may be inappropriate when dealing with complicated interactions between steel and concrete, especially in variable and multi-axial loads situations [⁴]. It is possible that inefficient designs, a higher cost of maintenance, or even a breakdown can result from being overly conservative or overly optimistic regarding life expectancy due to these restrictions [⁵]. Thus, the gaps in this area are filled in this paper with an integrated approach involving finite element modeling, algorithms for fatigue life prediction, and experimental validation [⁶]. Improved SCCSM fatigue life estimation, optimized structural designs, increased SCCSM safety, and cost-effectiveness in building projects are the objectives of this work, which considers material heterogeneity and non-linear SCCSM mechanical interaction effects [⁷].

Compared with conventional bridge decks, steel-plate-concrete composite slabs have many advantages regarding smaller reinforcement needs and higher durability [⁸]. In addition to connecting concrete slabs and bottom steel flat plates with studs or steel plates with holes [⁹]. This technique also facilitates the construction process, eliminating the need for formwork and scaffolding [¹⁰]. Using this composite slab, there is no need to put up or remove the formwork while building large-span bridges, which shortens the construction duration and saves money [¹¹]. Furthermore, a smaller member size may be necessary due to the interaction between concrete and steel plate, which may lessen bridge decks’ deformation and dynamic response [¹²]. Renovating, reconstructing, or retrofitting existing concrete bridge decks may also benefit from steel-plate-concrete composite slabs [¹³].

Bridges constructed with various types of composite slabs, such as steel-plate-concrete, fiber-reinforced-plastic (abbreviated as FRP), profiled steel sheeting-concrete, and deconstructable composites, have proliferated due to the rapid development of transportation [¹⁴]. To reduce the need for transverse reinforcement and increase the flexural rigidity and bending ability of composite bridge decks, the Perfobond shear connector was established and used to transfer shear forces between steel plates and concrete slabs [¹⁵]. This was based on previous research on shear connectors. Using composite slabs in bridge building has been extensively and successfully implemented. With comparable mechanical behavior to profiled steel sheeting-concrete bridge decks but less concrete, shorter construction times, and no need for shear connector installation, thick profiled steel sheeting or specialized prefabrication processes, steel-plate-concrete composite slabs are an improvement on these older methods. After confirming it had sufficient flexural stiffness and bearing capacity, this composite slab was increasingly used in bridge building, renovation, and retrofitting. Modern infrastructure projects, such as offshore platforms, high-rise skyscrapers, and long-span bridges, often use Steel-Concrete Composite Structural Materials (SCCSM) because of their exceptional load-bearing efficiency, ductility, and combined strength. These materials exhibit better mechanical performance under complicated loading circumstances because they syndicate concrete’s compressive strength with steel’s tensile characteristics. The fatigue behavior of SCCSM under repetitive or cyclic loading is a key issue, even though they have strong static performance. This is especially true in applications where traffic-induced pressures, such as highway bridges and railway structures, may cause progressive degradation over time. According to studies conducted in this field, fatigue failures often start at the steel-concrete interface, where cracks may be initiated and propagated due to material deterioration and differential stresses. Fatigue cracking in shear connections or delamination at the composite interface may drastically shorten the service life of steel-concrete composite bridge decks that undergo millions of load cycles. For this reason, guaranteeing the dependability and safety of SCCSM structures over the long term requires an in-depth familiarity with fatigue performance and life forecast approaches.

The mechanical behavior and fatigue performance of a steel-plate-concrete composite slab (SPCCS) subjected to low-cycle fatigue loads were investigated by LIU and YANG [¹⁶] via static testing and constant amplitude fatigue tests. Damage growth and failure mechanism of an SPCCS were investigated concerning stud arrangement, shear ratio, amplitude of fatigue load, and steel plate arrangement with apertures, among other variables. The outcomes showed that the magnitude of the fatigue stress in the base steel plate had a direct bearing on the fatigue life of composite slabs; however, the fatigue performance was unaffected by the number of apertures in the steel plate or the location of the studs.

According to WANG et al. [¹⁷], fatigue crack propagation analysis and fatigue life calculation were used to assess the fatigue performance of the stud connections of steel-concrete structures. Stress intensity factors (SIFs) of studs and fractures of different geometric sizes were analyzed after creating the finite element model with the first crack based on linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM). Using mixed-type and I-type fatigue fractures, the researcher determined the stud’s propagation and examined the relationship between fatigue fracture depth and the effectiveness of SIFs. The calculations show that the kind of fatigue crack propagation and the initial fracture significantly impact the fatigue life of the stud. Fatigue limit states are a common factor in the design of shear connections in steel-concrete composite bridges, according to ROSHANFAR et al. [¹⁸]. One of the linear equations in the AASHTO LRFD bridge design criteria is for the fatigue life of shear connections to be predicted using a semi-logarithmic S-N curve. However, the available experimental evidence shows this equation is too cautious in other cases. To tackle this, this paper deals with fatigue life prediction of shear connections using artificial intelligence (AI). Experimental data and the AASHTO equation were used to compare the predictions of various algorithms. The findings show that ML approaches outperform the AASHTO equation in predicting fatigue life.

YAN et al. [¹⁹] explain that the fatigue damage control parameters were determined by deducing the warning indicators of CSCC beam fatigue failure from a connection similar to that between earthquake magnitude and frequency. The AE cumulative energy-based fatigue damage model was suggested to forecast the composite beam’s fatigue life and damage state. Contrary to visually-based inspections, the results demonstrate that the AE detection approach can correctly and constantly monitor the fatigue damage inside the composite beams in real time.

CHEN et al. [²⁰] recommended using steel-concrete composite structures due to their lightweight nature, rapid construction time, and large span-to-depth ratio. The effects of environmental factors on these structures’ long-term behavior have not been well investigated. Dissimilar specimen failure mechanisms were found by static and fatigue loading. Damage from corrosion reduced the sample’s fatigue life and monotonic load-bearing capacity. As the rate of corrosion decreased, the residual bending stiffness also decreased.

LI et al. [²¹] analyzed fatigue and post-fatigue monotonic bond behavior between steel rebar and Ultra High Toughness Cementitious Composite (UHTCC). A minimal impact on monotonic and fatigue bond performance was seen as a consequence of the one-side decrease of the UHTCC layer. Under fatigue loading, the ultimate slide was much greater than the monotonic envelope at the same stress level. The development of fatigue slip was also described using a novel model. After that, we looked at how fatigue loading history affected the performance of the residual bond. The increased resilience to cracks in UHTCC allowed it to maintain a lower bond stiffness degradation rate than regular concrete. The stress-slip curve of monotonic specimens after fatigue was forecasted using a semi-empirical model.

HUANG et al. [²²] suggested the Fatigue deformation behavior and fiber failure mechanism of UHTCC in compression. This work explores the compressive fatigue deformation behavior of UHTCC at several stress levels S, including 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, and 65. Results show that UHTCC’s cyclic creep curve is unaffected by stress levels, although fatigue failure strain grows with decreasing stress. A probabilistic model is suggested to account for the impact of stress level on fatigue failure strain, and failure strains at various stress levels follow the two-parameter Weibull distribution.

2. MATERIAL CHARACTERIZATION

The characterization of SCCSM is a key step in the investigation of their mechanical behavior and fatigue performance. SCCSM are designed so that the best properties of steel and concrete have been taken to realize enhanced structural strength under multifarious loading conditions [²³]. The material characterization process involves the analysis of individual components and their interaction within composite systems to ensure their accurate predictions of mechanical properties and failure mechanisms. The suggested fatigue life prediction approach for Steel-Concrete Composite Structural Materials (SCCSM) may be more applicable by simplifying the framework and using commonly used design parameters and material data [²⁴]. The approach may use empirically calibrated fatigue curves and typical stress ranges from design codes instead of depending only on complicated simulations or intensive experimental inputs. In addition, the method may be used to detect fatigue in real-time by integrating it with current structural health monitoring (SHM) systems. This integration can make use of embedded sensors and reduced damage accumulation methods. These adjustments simplify computation and operations and encourage wider industry use by harmonizing with standard engineering techniques and infrastructure maintenance procedures.

2.1. Steel properties

Steel is the most important component of SCCSM owing to its high tensile strength and ductility. The primary factors influencing its performance in composite structures include the following: Steel’s ability to withstand pulling forces is highly significant in maintaining the integrity of SCCSM during dynamic loading conditions. A high elastic modulus leads to a minimum amount of deformation under applied stresses. The steel product can withstand cyclic loading, which does not lead to significant degradation and is therefore not affected by it.

2.2. Concrete

Properties Concrete is non-metallic and is often associated with steel to provide excellent compressive strength and durability. Among its key points are:

The force that concrete can resist axial loads without failure distributing on the concrete surface [²⁵]. In Aggregate Composition, aggregates’ size, shape, and distribution significantly affect overall performance. Using admixtures and reinforcements is an effective way of resisting cracking caused by tension.

2.3. Steel-concrete interface

Steel-concrete interphase is important for an ideal load transfer action and composite development. The primary important characteristics are:

Adequate bonding between materials ensures the efficient distribution of the imposed stress. These parts, like studs and perforated plates, provide more mechanical bonding and prevent slipping. The resistance to environmental conditions, such as rain, moisture, or temperature changes, is essential for good performance and a long life span. By adjusting critical material characteristics in light of experimental degradation data, the SCCSM fatigue prediction model incorporates temperature and environmental impacts. Fatigue strength is modified for steel components using calibrated temperature exposure profiles to compensate for decreased ductility and microstructural changes. Modifications to the stiffness and fracture energy of thermally cycled concrete reflect the deterioration experienced by the material in controlled environmental chamber testing [²⁶]. Incorporating damage accumulation rates found in durability tests and lowering the bond strength at the steel-concrete interface allow us to estimate moisture penetration and freeze-thaw impacts. In corrosive situations, the steel cross-section deteriorates with time, and the composite action is lost. The simulation loop incorporates changes to material properties.

2.4. Fatigue behavior

The SCCSM fatigue behavior is ruled by the interaction of steel and concrete under cyclic loads. This is accomplished by the following:

The fluctuating loading causes lots of stresses to move around so that the proper mathematical strategies are to be performed [²⁷]. Microcracks in concrete or steel can occur and spread under the actions of repeated loading, thus leading the element to break. Considering the damage accumulation makes it possible to foresee the wear side and, thus, to design structures that last longer.

Figure 1a, which illustrates a slab composite, develops a detailed descriptive view or a new diagram to ensure the view is clear and user-friendly [²⁸]. The composite slab features the passage of rebar strategically with steel plates flat multiple through positioned circular holes through which the rebar passes. The holes in the rebar lock the longitudinal and bar perforated connectors. The design combines the steel plate reinforcement and concrete structure to attain maximum load transfer and structural strength.

Figure 1
(a) image of composite slab, (b) flat steel plate-concrete composite slab schematic design.

(1) $$Ed[r^{\prime }-sn]:\to Bs[w-na{q}^{″}]\ast Vx[r-6va{q}^{″}]$$

When the projected fatigue life is denoted by the stress range r' – sn, the material-specific constants are A and B, and the impact of interactions between concrete Vx[r – 6vaq'' ] is represented by Bs[w – naq'' ], including material heterogeneity and reloading complexity into finite element computations and experimental validations for Equation 1. Cracking at the concrete’s bottom tension face was the hallmark of the beam specimens’ failure pattern, which spread towards the mid-span area with the accumulation of loading cycles. Gradually, rigidity was lost when fractures began along the steel-concrete contact and spread with increasing cycles. Debonding of the steel reinforcement from the concrete matrix was the principal cause of failure in certain specimens, while a mix of concrete crushing and steel yielding was the dominant cause in others. Typical failure mechanisms for these composite beams included flexural cracking and the development of a diagonal shear fracture at the mid-span [²⁹, ³⁰]. Upcoming revisions will use pictures of failure patterns captured using high-definition digital image correlation (DIC) methods utilized in the tests to make the depiction more accurate.

Figure 1b illustrates a metal sheet containing many rectangular pieces and circular holes. The different parts of the plate include steel sheets set in a horizontal pattern inside the framework of the concrete. The equally spread circular holes at every layer help to add reinforcing bars or other support features [³¹]. This disposition enhances composite action within materials and allows for the effective transfer of loads. The steel plate stands out on the concrete backdrop, having a coat of blue paint. One of the significant ways to strengthen composite slabs is the proper arrangement of holes for optimum load distribution in building systems that guarantee enhanced integrity performance and structure.

(2) $$u_{r}d:\to Mx[\forall {\tau }^{\prime }+7vx{z}^{″}]+\rho \tau [\epsilon \delta +hs{w}^{″}]$$

Where u_rmeans the displacement responsiveness (Mx[∀τ' + 7vxz'' ]) under repeated loading, where ρτ is the moment interaction matrix, [εδ + hsw'' ]' is the variable stress contribution matrix. Equation 2, with the suggested technique, models the non-linear mechanical connections and material homogeneity in SCCSM. The suggested model for predicting the fatigue life of Steel-Concrete Composite Structural Materials (SCCSM) uses several cutting-edge methods that set it apart from more conventional models in the literature. One such method is multi-scale modeling, which considers material heterogeneity and local stress distributions to improve fatigue life forecasts [³²]. This method encompasses both macroscopic structure behavior and tiny material interactions. Furthermore, the model considers environmental and temperature-dependent degradation variables, which are often disregarded in traditional models, as well as real-world circumstances, including moisture, freeze-thaw cycles, and temperature changes. On top of that, a stochastic and probabilistic technique, which employs Monte Carlo simulations, provides a more reliable evaluation of the variability in fatigue life by quantifying uncertainties in material attributes and loading circumstances, in contrast to deterministic approaches. Another achievement that tackles the non-linear behavior of fatigue damage under different stress levels and load spectra is non-linear damage accumulation based on continuous damage mechanics (CDM). On top of that, the model incorporates data in real-time from Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) sensors so that fatigue life projections may be updated dynamically as the structure changes [³³].

Table 1 highlights key parameters for fatigue performance and life prediction of SCCSM. It includes stress redistribution, crack initiation, fatigue life modeling, cumulative damage, and loading scenarios supported by methods like FEA and S-N curve analysis [³⁴]. Representative values provide insights into SCCSM’s durability, aiding in accurate lifecycle assessment and structural optimization. A stochastic finite element modeling technique was used to account for material heterogeneity, which was supplemented by input parameters acquired from statistical analysis. Modulus of elasticity, compressive strength, and tensile capacity were assigned using probability distributions from laboratory testing on 50 cylindrical specimens. The material characteristics of the mesh were spatially varied to mimic concrete heterogeneity. The characteristics were distributed according to a Weibull distribution; the compressive strength COV was 12%, and the elastic modulus COV was 9%. The normal distribution was used to determine the steel reinforcement’s yield strength and strain-hardening properties. The mean value was 505 MPa, and the standard deviation was 18 MPa. There was a lot of variation in local stiffness, fracture initiation zones, and fatigue life between multiple Monte Carlo simulations; thus, these uncertainties might be propagated via the structural model [³⁵]. The simulations were run using 1000 iterations. Furthermore, the mechanical interaction between the interfacial transition zone, concrete, and steel was captured using representative volume elements (RVEs) in mesoscale sub-models.

Table 1
Fatigue performance and life prediction of SCCSM with representative values.

PARAMETER	METHODOLOGY/TECHNIQUE	REPRESENTATIVE VALUE/OBSERVATION	PERFORMANCE INSIGHT
Stress Redistribution	Finite Element Analysis (FEA)	High-stress zones at steel-concrete interface	Identifies potential failure initiation points
Crack Initiation	Laboratory Testing and Simulation	Microcracks at 60–70% of ultimate stress	Predicts early failure regions under cyclic loading
Fatigue Life Prediction	S-N Curve Modeling	10⁶ cycles at 50% stress amplitude	Demonstrates SCCSM’s durability under loading
Cumulative Damage	Miner’s Rule	85% damage accumulation over 20 years	Aids in lifecycle assessment and maintenance planning
Loading Scenarios	Multi-Axial Loading Experiments	10% higher fatigue life under bi-axial loading	Reflects SCCSM’s versatility in complex stress states

Figure 2 illustrates the specimen’s fatigue testing and use for flexural aspects. Red-shaded grips and centrally decreased portions for uniform load distribution provide a stable grip while applying axial force, and the tensile specimen has a shape that allows for accurate stress-strain characterization in uniaxial tension [³⁶]. Similarly sized but gripped with simple rectangular blocks (illustrated by boxes unshaded), the specimen fatigue is designed for alternating stress and has identical geometry. The parameters given are the modulus of elasticity (GPa), compressive strength (MPa), and Poisson’s ratio (0.2). Testing was carried out on cylindrical specimens to guarantee consistency in material qualities, and the concrete was categorized as Grade 40 according to the mix design [³⁷]. The ultimate tensile strength is 600 MPa, the modulus of elasticity is 210 GPa, and the Poisson’s ratio is 0.3. The yield strength is 500 MPa. Normatively measuring 16 mm in diameter, the steel reinforcement bars were high-yield deformed. These numbers served as input parameters for the numerical and experimental models, and they were generated from the usual procedures for testing materials. It is designed in this configuration for durability in situations of repeated strain. In making tensile and fatigue failure determinations on a material, regions of potential stress concentration should be identified, and both geometries have a center hole to just that end.

Figure 2
Visual representations of the fatigue and tensile specimens.

(3) $$Z{x}_{sr}:\to Ls[ji-sn{e}^{″}]+Ns[w\partial +kw{q}^{″}]-Bx{s}^{″}$$

This explains the stress redistribution caused by fatigue (Zx_sr) in SCCSM, where Ls[ji – sne'' ] the model for load-sharing effects is the model for strain-hardening and cyclic load impacts and is the model for bond-slip effects at the interface. Equation 3 includes the intricate interaction between material characteristics and mechanical reactions.

(4) $$i_{j}r:\to Vx[s-8v{w}^{″}]+Va[ki-sn{e}^{″}]-Vx{s}^{″}$$

In SCCSM, which i_fr depicts changes in shear force, Vx[s – 8vw'' ] models’ interactions between axial stress and strain and Va[ki – sne'' ] compensates for deterioration in stiffness at material interfaces, corresponding to the fatigue-induced internal forces response (Vxs'' ). In keeping with the suggested approach, this considers deterioration dynamics and non-linear stress interactions by Equation 4.

The suggested models are adaptable to various composite construction sizes and types. Because it uses generic material attributes and loading conditions that can be adjusted to different structural configurations, the fatigue life prediction model for Steel-Concrete Composite Structural Materials (SCCSM) has an inherent scalability in its fundamental structure. A multi-scale approach can fine-tune the model for bigger, more complicated structures like long-span bridges or high-rise buildings [³⁸]. This approach involves simulating localized effects (such as at joints or interfaces) at the micro level and analyzing the structure’s global behavior at the macro level. Because of its adaptability, the model can account for differences in material composition, loading conditions, and environmental variables across various composite structure types. The model may be modified to match the structure’s unique properties by changing input factors like load spectra, concrete mix design, or steel reinforcement ratios. Composite constructions with different levels of steel-concrete bond strength and loading scenarios may be used with this technology since it considers the interaction between the two materials under different operating situations. Integrating with real-time monitoring systems further enhances the scalability of the suggested strategy. No matter the size or type of structure, structural health monitoring (SHM) sensors can keep the model’s input parameters updated to adapt to ongoing changes in the structure’s circumstances [³⁹]. From simple components to intricate networks, the model’s capacity to adapt dynamically keeps it accurate and useful across all composite systems.

3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The results of this research underscore the significant advantages of SCCSM in construction applications.

3.1. Experimental setup

The fatigue test setup consists of a steel plate, distributive girder, and actuator, as represented in Figure 3. Using cyclic loading to replicate fatigue situations, it is transferred from the actuator to the girder to homogenize the applied stress across it [⁴⁰]. Providing support to the specimen through the bearing beam in a way that testing stability is achieved without misalignment. A steel plate connecting the specimen with the setup would accommodate the imposed pressures, and thereby, one spot avoids concentration stress. The experimental apparatus comprised five full-scale beams made of steel and concrete, with dimensions of 3000 mm in length and 300 mm × 500 mm in rectangular cross-section. The compressive strength of the concrete was 45 MPa, and the reinforcing was 500 MPa high-yield steel bars. A 250 kN servo-hydraulic actuator provided fatigue loading in a four-point bending arrangement. The cyclic loads applied ranged from 60 kN to 140 kN, or 30% to 70% of the ultimate static load, and the frequency was 2 Hz. Specimens have a range of 1.25 million to 1.65 million cycles to failure. During validation, the observed values were compared to the model’s anticipated fatigue life, with a prediction error of 4.3% to 6.8%. When comparing experimental measurements to projections based on mid-span deflection, the highest variation at failure was 3.2 mm. The anticipated and experimental fatigue life had a high level of agreement, with an R² value of 0.948. Across all specimens, crack initiation occurred within a ± 6% margin, while stiffness degradation curves aligned within a 5% closeness to expected places. This apparatus can then provide a basis for testing structural integrity and material strength during repeated loading. Such is relevant for the proper evaluation of aging performance consistency and precision.

Figure 3
Process of fatigue test setup.

(5) $$K{d}_r[ki-sn{e}^{″}]:\to Hs[w-8n{j}^{″}]+Bs[\partial {\infty }^{\prime }]$$

Equation 5 describes the stiffness degradation (Kd_r) under cyclic loads, which [ki – sne'' ] denotes the effect of fatigue loading and stress redistribution and Hs[w – 8nj'' ] records the consequences of stress buildup Bs[∂∝' ] and material malleability. We will measure stiffness reduction using finite element models and experimental validation to understand fatigue behavior better. Superior accuracy and reliability are shown by the suggested technique for fatigue life prediction of Steel-Concrete Composite Structural Materials (SCCSM) when compared to current methodologies. From an accuracy standpoint, our model outperforms conventional techniques like the Miner’s Rule or simple S-N curve extrapolations, which usually provide lower correlation coefficients (R²< 0.85), by achieving a greater correlation (R² = 0.95) between anticipated and experimental fatigue lifetimes. Improved accuracy results from considering temperature and environmental degradation, two aspects that traditional models often ignore. This allows for a more thorough forecast in a variety of operating situations. Compared to previous methods, the suggested one is more dependable, especially when dealing with the unpredictability of material qualities and loading circumstances. As opposed to current models, which have RMSE values of up to 2.5 × 10⁵ cycles, the suggested technique has a reduced root mean square error (RMSE) of 1.8 × 10⁵ cycles, as shown by the Monte Carlo simulations used to measure uncertainties in our model. This decrease in inaccuracy shows an increase in dependability in estimating fatigue life under real-world, changeable settings. Regarding practicality, our approach is more suited for various structural contexts. Our model may be easily applied to many SCCSM setups, including those exposed to variable environmental influences, unlike existing approaches that generally need lengthy calibration for particular materials or load circumstances. The application is further enhanced by the ability to link with structural health monitoring systems, allowing real-time fatigue evaluations without needing periodic recalibration.

3.1.1. Enhanced strength and durability

SCCSM demonstrates remarkable improvements in load-bearing capacity and resistance to environmental degradation, as explained in Figure 4. The synergy between steel and concrete ensures that these materials can withstand high stress while maintaining structural integrity over extended periods. Concrete acts as a protective layer, shielding steel from corrosive environments, while the steel framework mitigates brittle failure in the concrete [⁴¹]. This combination ensures superior performance under cyclic loading, making SCCSM ideal for infrastructure that demands long-term reliability and safety.

Figure 4
Analysis of strength and durability.

(6) $$Z_{d}Rf:\to Js[ki-n{s}^{″}]+Xs[{\propto }^{\prime }-fsw]\ast Vs[s-b{d}^{″}]$$

In SCCSM, where Z_dRf is the damage-induced redistributing stress factor (Js[ki – ns'' ]). Equation 6Js[ki – ns'' ] represents the interaction between axial Vs[s – bd'' ] and normal stresses. This suggested approach enhances the durability and dependability of the structural design by using sophisticated materials for enhanced strength and durability. To effectively capture both the global structural behavior and localized stress concentrations, the finite element models utilized a combination of 8-node solid hexahedral elements (C3D8) for the concrete domain and 2-node truss or beam elements (T3D2 or B31) for the embedded steel reinforcement. Cohesive zone elements (COH3D8) were used to describe the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between concrete and steel to mimic bond-slip effects under cyclic stress correctly. Refinement studies were conducted to optimize the mesh density to achieve the best possible balance between accuracy and computational efficiency. In these studies, the local mesh sizes were reduced to 5 mm in high-stress regions, such as the rebar-concrete interface and support zones, while coarser mesh sizes of 15–20 mm were used in less critical regions. This study confirms that the meshes were independent by conducting a sensitivity analysis on coarse, medium, and fine mesh configurations. Midspan deflection, maximum primary stress, and damage index at failure were the critical response metrics used to assess convergence. The results stabilized with less than a 2% change between the medium and fine meshes, suggesting that the selected mesh density provided enough precision without incurring extra processing expense.

3.1.2. Cost efficiency

Integrating steel and concrete in SCCSM leads to significant cost savings in construction projects, as shown in Figure 5. By optimizing material usage, these composites reduce the overall volume of materials required without compromising strength [⁴²]. Construction timelines are also shortened, particularly when using prefabricated composite elements that eliminate the need for formwork and scaffolding. Additionally, the durability of SCCSM minimizes maintenance costs, offering a sustainable and economically viable solution for large-scale infrastructure.

Figure 5
Analysis of cost efficiency.

(7) $$k{v}_{fr}:\to Nx[s-7v{w}^{″}]\ast Vs[a-9u{v}^{″}]+Bas[vc-x{l}^{″}]$$

It symbolizes the fatigue endurance factor (kv_fr) in SCCSM, which Nx[s – 7vw'' ] represents the interplay of stress fluctuations with load cycles, Vs[a – 9uv'' ] handles stiffness changes and material fatigue consequences that are Bas[vc – xl'' ] and captures bond deterioration at material interfaces. Equation 7 corresponds with the suggested technique while evaluating fatigue resistance via extensive simulations and tests for cost efficiency. The fatigue life prediction method used a hybrid of strain-based life prediction approaches and non-linear cumulative damage models; more specifically, it used the Smith-Watson-Topper (SWT) parameter and a CDM-based modified damage accumulation model. When subjected to cyclic loading, materials such as steel-concrete composites undergo complicated stress states; the SWT model was chosen for its sensitivity to mean stress effects. A non-linear Palmgren-Miner version incorporating a damage evolution rule that updates residual life and stiffness as damage accumulates was used to tackle real-time stress redistribution in composite sections under variable amplitude loading as an alternative to the classic linear Miner’s Rule. Critical in structures exposed to variable service circumstances, the accepted models dynamically account for load sequence effects, fracture closure processes, and load interaction, in contrast to classic models that assume constant amplitude loading and linear superposition of damage.

3.1.3. Versatility in applications

The adaptability of SCCSM is what makes them preferred in many construction sites, as explained in Figure 6. In infrastructure development, they are extensively used in bridges and high-rise buildings because they have a very high stiffness and strength-to-weight ratio. SCCSM is just as effective in retrofitting projects, repairs, and improvements, where integrating these materials with existing structures is barely perceptible. These materials are worth mentioning because they support innovative architectural designs; thus, constructing long-span bridges and other complex structures that show strength and aesthetic flexibility is attainable.

Figure 6
Versatility in applications.

(8) $$kd[k-sn{e}^{″}]:\to Vxs[op-ab{e}^{″}]\ast Vs[w-8va{q}^{″}]$$

Equation 8kd[k – sne'' ] delineates the factor for stiffness degradation (Vxs[op – abe'' ]) in SCCSM, which Vs[w – 8vaq'' ] represents bond-slip interactions and material deterioration. The interface mechanics include material variety in fatigue modeling, aligning with the suggested application versatility technique. Measurements of fatigue life, residual stiffness, and crack propagation rate were taken from steel-concrete composite structural materials (SCCSM) subjected to prolonged cyclic loading and environmental exposure to quantify their durability in this work. The evaluation of durability relied on numerical and experimental data. Over 90–120 days, each full-scale beam specimen was tested for fatigue durability by undergoing up to 2 million load cycles at different stress levels, usually between 0.3 and 0.7 of the ultimate load. To mimic long-term field exposure, selected specimens were subjected to environmental conditioning, including fluctuating temperatures (from 5°C to 40°C) and alternating wet-dry cycles. Using digital image correlation and crack width meters, we tracked three primary indicators to determine durability: (1) the number of cycles to failure (Nf), (2) the degradation of flexural stiffness over time, which was measured at regular intervals (every 0.2 million cycles), and (3) the growth of surface cracks. Using normalized stiffness loss as a damage parameter D(t), we estimated the stiffness drop; for fatigue life, we used a modified strain-life technique calibrated with experimental data. Under more severe environmental circumstances, fatigue fractures were apparent after around 0.9 million cycles, although specimens maintained more than 80% of their original stiffness up to 1.2 million cycles.

3.1.4. Structural design reliability

(9) $$l_{de}:\to Ns[w-9v{w}^{″}]\ast Vx[s-9v{w}^{″}]-Cs[a-ki{p}^{″}]$$

Figure 7 and Equation 9 explain the structural design reliability (l_de) in SCCSM, which Ns[w – 9vw'' ]reflects stress redistributing wealth, Vx[s – 9vw'' ] captures strain consequences from cyclic loading, and Cs[a – kip'' ] considers the decrease in axial force owing to material fatigue. It addresses degradation dynamics and non-linear load-strain interactions and guarantees resilient structural designs.

Figure 7
Analysis of structural design reliability.

(10) $$vgt:\to Bs[w-9v{w}^{″}]+Va[lo-sb{e}^{″}]\ast Vxs{p}^{″}$$

Equation 10 where symbolizes the overall deterioration factor caused by fatigue (Bs[w – 9vw'' ]) in SCCSM, where stress redistribution effects are accounted for by and represent the amplification of cyclic loads. The degradation behaviors and stress-strain interactions into fatigue life projections are validated experimentally. At important spots on the surface of the steel reinforcement and the tension face of the concrete, electrical resistance strain gauges (Vishay-type, 5 mm gauge length, ±5000 με range) were attached to monitor the localized strain development during cyclic loading. Installed at mid-span and near supports were Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDTs) that could measure vertical deflection with a precision of 0.01 mm and a measurement range of 0–100 mm. At predetermined intervals during the fatigue cycles, surface crack openings were measured using crack width gauges (Demec mechanical strain micrometer, accuracy ±0.005 mm). A Digital Image Correlation (DIC) system (GOM ARAMIS 3D) was used for full-field strain and displacement tracking. This system, which is calibrated to sub-millimeter precision and has 5-megapixel stereoscopic cameras, allowed for the imaging of strain concentration zones and crack propagation routes.

Our analysis of the SCCSM experimental fatigue data was a mix of descriptive and inferential statistics. The standard deviation was 2.1 × 10⁵ cycles, and the coefficient of variation was 12.0%, suggesting moderate heterogeneity among the specimens, as shown by descriptive statistics, which showed an average fatigue life of 1.75 × 10⁶ cycles. Fatigue life was shown to be significantly affected by the stress ratio, according to one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) (p < 0.01). After analyzing the data using Tukey’s HSD test, it was shown that specimens subjected to freeze-thaw cycles had a much lower fatigue resistance (a mean loss of 18.4%) than the control specimens. The linear regression analysis produced an R² value of 0.93, demonstrating a significant relationship between fatigue life and maximum stress. The RMSE value of 1.8 × 10⁵ cycles allowed for quantifying the model prediction error. The statistical robustness of the model was confirmed as a result of computing 95% confidence intervals for all important parameters and finding no significant departure from normalcy in the residual analysis.

3.2. Research observation

Several key findings emerged from the material characterization of SCCSM:

Heterogeneity in Material Properties: Concrete’s heterogeneous nature, including variations in aggregate size, distribution, and cement composition, plays a crucial role in the fatigue response. Steel components provide uniform tensile properties, but their interaction with concrete introduces complex stress redistribution patterns.

Bonding Interface: The mechanical bond between steel and concrete, often facilitated by shear connectors or perforated steel plates, significantly impacts load transfer and fatigue performance. Weak bonding interfaces were observed as primary locations for crack initiation under cyclic loading.

Fatigue Behavior Under Cyclic Loads: Experimental results revealed that SCCSM exhibits distinct fatigue characteristics depending on load magnitude, frequency, and direction. High-stress concentration zones were identified around shear connectors and at the interface of steel and concrete.

3.3. Contribution

Combining steel’s high tensile strength and concrete’s compressive resistance leads to superior load-bearing capacity. SCCSM demonstrates higher resistance to environmental degradation compared to traditional materials. Reduced material requirements due to composite action result in lighter structural elements and lower construction costs. Eliminating formwork and scaffolding in certain applications, such as bridge decks, accelerates construction timelines and reduces labor costs. SCCSM is used in various infrastructure projects, including bridges, high-rise buildings, and retrofitting of existing structures. Their adaptability to different structural configurations and loading scenarios makes them invaluable for modern engineering challenges.

3.4. Failure modes

The most common failure mode arises from debonding at the steel-concrete interface, leading to loss of composite action. Cyclic loading causes microcracks in concrete, which can propagate and coalesce, ultimately resulting in structural failure. Shear connectors may fail due to fatigue, reducing the effectiveness of load transfer between steel and concrete. Under high cyclic loads, steel components may experience fatigue cracking, particularly in areas with stress concentrations.

Instrument calibration, several trials, and statistical error quantification were used to overcome uncertainties in measurements and outcomes. To guarantee that the measurements were accurate to within ±1%, certified reference standards were used to calibrate all strain measures, load cells, and displacement transducers before testing. Data sets were evaluated using confidence intervals and standard error estimates. Each experimental setting was reproduced at least five times to account for variability. The results of the fatigue life calculation were reported with 95% confidence limits after measurement uncertainty was transmitted through it according to the rule of error propagation. Furthermore, 10,000 iterations of Monte Carlo simulations were run to assess the fatigue life model’s sensitivity to input variability. The results showed that the coefficient of variation in input stress levels was the most important contributor to output uncertainty.

4. Conclusion

• The research outlines a basic framework that enables one to grasp the wear and tear features along with the life prediction of SCCSM.

• The study tackles crucial gaps in predicting fatigue behavior under complex loading situations through material characterization, advanced modeling, and experimental validation.

• The key findings illustrate that SCCSM offers the ideal superiority in strength, durability, and cost efficiency; hence, our times cannot be imagined without them in infrastructure projects.

• The proposed mode, which includes finite element analysis and lab testing once the laboratory test correlation is established, can be used to figure out the stress concentration zones and the failure mechanism.

• This development paves the way for the ever more exact prediction of fatigue life, perfecting structural design together, and the more efficient use of resources in the construction field.

• By solving material heterogeneity and non-linear mechanical interaction issues, this research provides valuable contributions to designing a safer, longer-lasting composite structure.

• The presented fatigue life prediction model for Steel-Concrete Composite Structural Materials (SCCSM) relies on precise data on material properties and environmental factors, one of its primary limitations. The model considers typical deterioration variables like corrosion, temperature changes, and moisture penetration, yet it does so on the assumption that they are constant throughout the structure. In practice, however, localized circumstances might differ greatly, so this assumption may not hold. The availability of extensive experimental data might also restrict the model’s accuracy, especially for new composite materials or when subjected to severe loading.

• Future research will focus on fine-tuning the fatigue prediction models and testing futuristic materials that should be used to upgrade SCCSM performance under evolving construction commands.

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Publication Dates

• Publication in this collection
  27 June 2025
• Date of issue
  2025

History

• Received
  23 Jan 2025
• Accepted
  13 May 2025