Eco-friendly paver blocks with geotextiles for pedestrian footpaths and smart materials for bus station infrastructure

Selvaraj, Logeswaran; Gururajan, Anusha; Velusamy, Sampathkumar; Subbaiyan, Anandakumar

doi:10.1590/1517-7076-RMAT-2025-0093

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Articles • Matéria (Rio J.) 30 • 2025 • https://doi.org/10.1590/1517-7076-RMAT-2025-0093 linkcopy

Eco-friendly paver blocks with geotextiles for pedestrian footpaths and smart materials for bus station infrastructure

Authorship SCIMAGO INSTITUTIONS RANKINGS

Abstract

The study examined bus stations in India to identify the potential causes of pedestrian footpath failures and defects in station building components. The factors such as increased pedestrian load, block settlement and environmental degradation significantly impact the long-term durability and performance of paver blocks. This research explores the use of geotextiles to enhance paver block strength and durability, allowing them to withstand heavy traffic while promoting environmental sustainability. Geotextiles, made of high-strength synthetic polymers, offer a sustainable alternative to cement, providing improved durability and eco-friendly benefits. A total of twelve samples with geo-textile ratios ranging from 20% to 60% were tested, yielding impressive mechanical properties including a compressive strength of 36 N/mm² and a flexural strength of 7.1 N/mm². The water absorption and fire resistance capacities exceeded those of conventional paver blocks. The integration of geotextiles also reduces manufacturing costs, construction expenses, environmental impact and resource consumption, offering a sustainable solution for footpath design. Additionally, the study recommends smart materials with applications for station components to enhance the sustainability of station infrastructure. These recommendations address the key issues in bus stations, improving the overall appearance, functionality and service efficiency of the infrastructure, tailored to the Indian context.

Keywords:
Bus station; Pedestrian footpath; Paver block; Geo-textiles; Smart materials

S.NO	COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH AT 28 DAYS, f_ck MPa	TRAFFIC CATEGORY	THICKNESS MIN (mm)	APPLICATIONS
1	M 30	Non-Traffic	50	Building premises, Monument premises, landscapes, public gardens/parks, domestic drives, paths and patios, embankment slopes and sand stabilization area
2	M 35	Light Traffic	60	Pedestrian plaza, shopping complex
3	M 40	Medium Traffic	80	Low volume traffic areas
4	M 50	Heavy Traffic	100	Bus terminal pavement / circulation area
5	M 55	Very Heavy Traffic	100	Bulk cargo handling areas

S.No	CHARACTERISTICS	REQUIREMENT
1	Water absorption value, Maximum	7% (Individual) and 6% (Average)
2	Compressive strength in MPa, Minimum	f_ck – 3 (Individual and Average)
3	Abrasion resistance, Maximum	Dry: • Individual: 20000 mmc per 5000 mm² • Average: 18000 mmc per 5000 mm² Wet: • Individual: 22000 mmc per 5000 mm² • Average: 20000 mmc per 5000 mm²
4	Tensile splitting strength, MPa, Minimum	a) Individual: 0.8 f_ck (for grades < M40)3 MPa (for grades > M40) b) Average: 0.085 f_ck (for grades < M40)3 MPa (for grades > M40)
5	Flexural strength, MPa, Mininimum	a) Individual: 0.10 f_ck b) Average: 0.11 f_ck

S.NO	SAMPLE	GEO-TEXTILE FIBRES (%)	SAND (%)	COARSE AGGREGATE (%)
1	GSC 1	50	30	20
2	GSC 2	40	40	20
3	GSC 3	30	50	20
4	GSC 4	50	40	10
5	GSC 5	45	45	10
6	GSC 6	40	50	10
7	GS 1	60	40	0
8	GS 2	50	50	0
9	GS 3	40	60	0
10	PP 1	50	30	20
11	PP 2	40	40	20
12	PP 3	30	50	20

S.NO	SAMPLE	COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (N/mm²)	MEAN (N/mm²)	STANDARD DEVIATION (N/mm²)
1	GSC 1	30	27.27	5.37
2	GSC 2	36
3	GSC 3	21.66
4	GSC 4	25.3
5	GSC 5	28.33
6	GSC 6	22.34
7	GS 1	26.53	23.51	3.98
8	GS 2	25
9	GS 3	19
10	PP 1	16	16.67	1.15
11	PP 2	16
12	PP 3	18

S.NO	SAMPLE	FLEXURAL STRENGTH (N/mm²)	MEAN (N/mm²)	STANDARD DEVIATION (N/mm²)
1	GSC 1	6	5.45	1.21
2	GSC 2	7.1
3	GSC 3	4.5
4	GSC 4	5.2
5	GSC 5	6
6	GSC 6	3.9
7	GS 1	5.4	5.23	0.93
8	GS 2	6.1
9	GS 3	4.2
10	PP 1	4.3	4.27	0.735
11	PP 2	5.1
12	PP 3	3.4

S.NO	SAMPLE	WATER ABSORPTION VALUE
1	GSC	6.0
2	GS	5.63
3	PP	4.24

POLYMER	MELTING POINT	DECOMPOSITION TEMPERATURE	MAXIMUM SERVICE TEMPERATURE	REMARKS
PP	160°C–170°C	300°C–350°C	90°C–110°C	Softens quickly under heat
PET	250°C–260°C	400°C–450°C	120°C–150°C	More thermally stable than PP/PE
PE	110°C–130°C	300°C–350°C	80°C–100°C	Low melting point

S.NO	SMART MATERIAL	ENERGY TYPE	TYPICAL APPLICATIONS IN BUS STATION
1	Photovoltaic (PV) Glass [⁵¹]	Solar	Transparent roofing or canopy panels for harvesting solar energy while providing shelter
2	Building-Integrated PV (BIPV) [⁵¹]	Solar	Facades, side panels, or rooftops integrated with solar cells to power lights and displays
3	Thermo electric Materials (e.g., Bi₂Te₃) [⁵²]	Heat gradient	Platform/floor tiles that generate electricity from foot traffic to power lighting or display boards
4	Piezoelectric Materials (e.g., PVDF, PZT) [⁵²]	Mechanical pressure	Mounted near engine exhausts or mechanical rooms to convert waste heat into electricity
5	Triboelectric Nanogenerators [⁵²]	Mechanical vibration	Installed in handrails, ticket counters or entrance gates to harvest energy from motion
6	Phase Change Materials (PCMs) [⁵³]	Thermal regulation	Integrated into wall panels or roofs to passively regulate interior temperatures
7	Electrochromic Glass [⁵⁴]	Solar control	Smart windows that adjust tint based on sunlight, reducing glare and energy use
8	Thermo chromic Coatings [⁵⁴]	Temperature-responsive	Applied to shelters or benches to reduce heat absorption during peak temperature
9	Photo-luminescent Tiles or Paints [⁵⁵]	Light storage/emission	Used for safety signage, step markers, or platform edges that glow in low-light conditions
10	Solar Paint (Perovskite) [⁵¹]	Solar	Applied to outer walls or roof structures to harvest solar energy in a lightweight form
11	Energy-Harvesting Concrete [⁵²]	Mechanical	Pavement slabs that generate power from the weight of buses or pedestrian footfall
12	Graphene Coatings [⁵⁶]	Thermal/Electrical	Coated on panels or wiring areas for heat dissipation and electrical enhancement
13	Hydrogel-Based Facades	Passive cooling	Cooling screens on facades to regulate temperature via evaporative cooling
14	Smart Roof Tiles [⁵⁴]	Solar	Rooftop installations to produce energy while maintaining architectural appearance
15	Self-Cleaning TiO2 Nano-Coatings	UV-activated	Applied to glass panels and roofs to reduce maintenance by repelling dust/water
16	Wind-Responsive Shading Panels	Kinetic	Adjustable facades or louvers that move with wind to regulate sunlight and airflow
17	Transparent Solar Coatings [⁵⁵]	Solar	Applied on waiting area glass for daylight harvesting while maintaining visibility
18	RF/EM Harvesters [⁵⁴]	Electromagnetic	Mounted near digital display boards or surveillance systems to capture ambient EM energy
19	Bio-Photovoltaic Walls (experimental)	Organic solar	Vertical green walls with integrated solar microbial panels for Eco-aesthetic energy use
20	Thermal Conductive Polymers [⁵²]	Heat distribution	Used in electrical housings and beneath seating to distribute heat or insulate power systems
21	Paraffin Wax (n-Octadecane, etc.) [⁵³]	Solid–Liquid	Roof insulation panels, ceiling tiles
22	Lauric Acid [⁵⁵]	Solid–Liquid	Wall boards and seating insulation
23	Polyethylene Glycol (PEG) [⁵⁴]	Solid–Solid or Solid–Liquid	Wallboard integration, flooring
24	Hydrated Salt (e.g., Glauber’s Salt – Na₂SO₄·10H₂O)	Solid–Liquid	Embedded in wall or roof panels
25	Calcium Chloride Hexahydrate (CaCl2·6H2O) [⁵⁴]	Solid–Liquid	Air handling units, wallboards
26	Erythritol	Solid–Liquid	High-temp HVAC systems, solar storage walls
27	Capric–Lauric Acid Mixtures	Solid–Liquid	Panels in waiting areas, canopy systems
28	Butyl Stearate	Solid–Liquid	Underfloor thermal storage layers
29	Stearic Acid	Solid–Liquid	Embedded in curtain walls for heat buffering
30	Myristic Acid [⁵⁶]	Solid–Liquid	Used in PCM panels behind cladding
31	Microencapsulated PCMs (Paraffin/Salt hydrates)	Encapsulated	Integrated into concrete panels, paint coatings
32	Rubitherm RT Series (RT21, RT25, RT27, etc.)	Commercial PCM	Roof decks, HVAC - integrated surfaces
33	ClimSel C Series (Salt Hydrates) [⁵⁶]	Solid–Liquid	PCM bricks or plaster boards in waiting lounges
34	SP-25 A8 (Microtek Labs)	Micro encapsulated	Paints, coatings on walls or benches
35	Sunamp PCM Heat Batteries	Solid–Solid	Thermal storage units for night use
36	BioPCM™ (Phase Change Energy Solutions) [⁵⁶]	Organic	Behind signage or inside walls
37	PCM-TES (Thermal Energy Storage) Panels	Composite Panels	Roof and wall retrofits
38	EnerStore by Croda [⁵⁴]	Bio-based	Sustainable design elements
39	RT Pure Series (Enhanced organic) [⁵⁶]	Solid–Liquid	Under roofing or skylight zones
40	Encapsulated Salt Hydrate Mats [⁵⁴]	Flexible sheets	Partition walls or waiting zone ceilings
41	Aerogel Insulation	Ultra-low thermal conductivity, lightweight	Wall and ceiling insulation, thermal breaks
42	Vacuum Insulated Panels (VIPs)	Very high R-value in compact form	Prefab walls, modular terminal panels
43	Low-E Glass [⁵², ⁵⁶]	Reflects infrared heat, maintains visible light	Windows, skylights, façades
44	Cool Roof Coatings [⁵⁶]	High solar reflectance, lowers roof temperature	Terminal rooftops, canopy structures
45	Smart Thermo chromic Windows [⁵⁶]	Changes transparency with temperature	Waiting lounges, facade glazing
46	Electrochromic glass	Switchable tint via electric signal	Control rooms, admin office partitions
47	Phase Change Drywall [⁵⁶]	Thermal energy storage, maintains interior temp	Interior partitions, walls
48	Reflective Insulation (Foil-based)	Reduces radiant heat transfer	Roofs, attics, shelters
49	Insulating Concrete Forms (ICFs)	Thermal mass + insulation	Structural walls of stations
50	Structural Insulated Panels (SIPs) [⁵⁶]	Pre-insulated panels with high efficiency	Waiting bays, restrooms, admin areas
51	Green Roof Systems	Natural insulation, absorbs heat	Terminal rooftops, bus bays
52	Double or Triple Glazed Windows [⁵⁶]	Improves thermal barrier, reduces HVAC load	Ticketing counters, offices
53	LED-Embedded Flooring	Low power, directional lighting	Pathways, visual cues for pedestrian flow
54	Cork Insulation Panels	Renewable, natural thermal insulator	Acoustic and thermal insulation in walls
55	Hempcrete[⁵⁶]	Breathable, low conductivity, eco-friendly	Wall infill, partitions
56	Recycled Denim Insulation	Non-toxic, good thermal and acoustic insulation	Utility rooms, low-traffic areas
57	High-Performance Glazing [⁵⁶]	Low U-value, high SHGC control	Curtain walls, clerestory windows
58	Smart Paint (Thermo-Insulating)	Reflects or stores heat based on conditions	Walls, rooftops, facades
59	Translucent Insulation Materials (TIMs) [⁵⁴]	Allows daylight, reduces heat loss	Day lighting panels, roof glazing
60	Concrete with Embedded PCM [⁵⁶]	Enhances thermal performance	Floors and walls exposed to sunlight

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