The effects of parental rearing styles and early maladaptive schemas in the development of personality: a systematic review

Basso, Lissia Ana; Fortes, Amanda Borges; Maia, Cintia Pacheco e; Steinhorst, Elisa; Wainer, Ricardo

doi:10.1590/2237-6089-2017-0118

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Review Article • Trends Psychiatry Psychother. 41 (3) • Jul-Sep 2019 • https://doi.org/10.1590/2237-6089-2017-0118 linkcopy

The effects of parental rearing styles and early maladaptive schemas in the development of personality: a systematic review

O efeito dos estilos parentais e esquemas desadaptativos precoces no desenvolvimento da personalidade: uma revisão sistemática

Authorship SCIMAGO INSTITUTIONS RANKINGS

Abstract

Introduction: The present paper aims to identify and characterize studies that assess the repercussions of parental rearing styles on development of psychopathological symptoms and to examine the possible relations between parental rearing behaviors and development of early maladaptive schemas (EMS).

Methods: A systematic search was conducted on the PsychNet, BVS, Scopus, Web of Science and PubMed databases for empirical studies published up to 2018 in Portuguese, English, or Spanish that investigated and characterized the effects of parental rearing styles.

Results: The electronic search identified 321 articles on the various different databases, only 22 of which met the criteria for inclusion and were read in full. Correlations were found between EMS and maternal rejection, parental rearing styles and depression in the studies. EMS were also found to act as mediators in the relationship between parental rearing styles and/or education and dysfunctional symptoms during personality development.

Conclusions: In the studies selected, parental rearing styles stood out from other variables that influence personality development and activation of schematic patterns. It is therefore important to highlight the importance of conducting studies in this area to provide information that can promote care and prevention strategies in early childhood.

Keywords:
Early maladaptive schemas; parental styles; personality

Author	Country	Sample	Objective	Instruments	Main Results	Limitations
Batool⁷	Pakistan	– 100 university students (young adults)	– Mediating role of EMS between perceptions of parental rearing styles and symptoms of personality disorders	PAQ YSQ-SF PDQ	– Permissive parenting style had positive correlations with histrionic, narcissistic and anti social personality disorders; – Authoritarian parenting had positive correlations with EMS and depressive personality disorder; – EMS had positive correlations with histrionic, antisocial, narcissistic and depressive personality disorder; – EMS partially mediated between permissive paternal parenting style and narcissistic personality disorder and between authoritarian paternal parenting style and depressive personality disorder.	– Concentrated on four personality disorders; – Measured role of overall schemas instead of investigating the effects of the eighteen schemas; – Investigated the entire phenomenon of personality disorders through the lens of paternal malparenting; – Generalizations cannot be made.
Beigi⁸	Iran	– 50 participants with personality disorder and ages ranging from less than 20 to over 30 years (mean age: 26); and their parents	– To determine the role of parents' schemas in the etiology of their children's schemas in different types of personality disorders	MCMI-III YSQ-SF	– In the first cluster, VUL in children correlated with VUL and DS schemas in mother. The child's ED schema correlated perfectly with ED in father; – In the second cluster, VUL in children correlated with AB, DS, FA, EM and VUL in mother. The child's ED schema correlated perfectly with father's ED schema; – In the third cluster, the VUL in the child correlated with mother's VUL, AB, MA, ISC and DS significantly. The ED schema correlated perfectly with ED in the father; – MA schema in the father were predictors of developing third cluster in the child. SI schema in the mother was a predictor of developing third cluster in the child. SUB and VUL schemas in the child predict the third cluster of personality disorders.	– The cross-sectional design does not allow causal attributions to be made; – Limited sample size; – Self-report method.
Brown⁹	Australia	– 174 participants – 18 to 65 years	– To investigate whether dysfunctional schema coping modes mediate the relationship between perceived negative parenting and the eating disorder behaviors of restricting, binging, and overcompensation (purging and overexercising)	YPI-R SMI EDDS	– The perfectionistic overcontroller and self-aggrandiser modes mediated the relationships between perceived negative parenting and compensatory behavior. The compliant surrenderer mode was found to mediate the relationships between negative parenting and both restricting and compensatory behavior. The detached protector and detached self-soother modes further mediated the relationships between perceived negative parenting experiences and both restriction and compensatory behavior; – Both restricting and compensatory behavior were weakly correlated with a variety of different perceived negative parenting experiences. The strongest correlations were seen between Perfectionistic Overcontroller and both controlling and conditional/narcissistic father, between Detached Self-soother and belittling, emotionally depriving and emotionally inhibited mother and between both Compliant Surrenderer and Detached Protector and emotionally inhibited mother. Restriction was weakly to moderately correlated with all dysfunctional coping modes except Bully/attack, with the strongest correlation being with Perfectionistic Overcontroller. Binge eating was only weakly correlated with a single mode – the Detached Protector. Finally, compensatory behavior was strongly correlated with the Detached Protector, with weak to moderate correlations with all other dysfunctional coping modes.	– Each of the behaviors was only measured with a single question; – Only the coping mode subscales of the SMI were included, and re-included the Perfectionistic Overcontroller coping mode, after it being excluded from the original SMI; – Self-report method; – The cross-sectional design; – Perceptions of parenting styles are subjective.
Cockram¹⁰	Australia	– 220 Vietnam Veterans from Australia and New Zealand – 163 with PTSD – 57 without PTSD	Study 1: – To examine relationships between childhood parenting experiences, EMS and PTSD in a convenience sample of male Vietnam war Veterans	Study 1: DQ MOPS YSQ -L3 ASDS	Study 1: – Average parental style scores differed significantly between PTSD and no PTSD groups in both parenting categories and in all subscales of the MOPS; – The PTSD group experienced greater indifference, abuse and overcontrol from both parents than the no PTSD group; – Veterans diagnosed with PTSD scored higher on the YSQ-L3 and on the MPS than veterans not diagnosed with PTSD. – VUL and EI schema discriminated significantly between veterans with PTSD and those without PTSD.	– Use of retrospective accounts; – Limits on how far to generalize the study results; – Participants were volunteers and not randomly selected; – Current PTSD status was not measured in the first study.
Haugh¹¹	USA	– 657 university students – 18 to 46 years old	– To examine the interaction between childhood maltreatment and child's temperament in formation of EMS – To examine EMS as risk factors for development of depressive symptoms	YSQ-SF-3 YPI ATQ-SF BDI-II	– Negative affect and extraversion temperament factors were significantly related to depressive symptoms and EMS domains; – Temperament was shown to have a significant influence on the indirect effect of parenting on depressive symptoms through EMS. – Significant associations were found between maladaptive parenting styles and both EMS domains and depressive symptoms; – ED, Belittling, and Overprotective styles were significantly and positively related to EMS domains and BDI-II scores; – ED parenting was most strongly correlated to the RD domain; – Overprotective parenting was most strongly correlated with the IAP domain; – The influence of parenting on depressive symptoms was shown to be mediated by EMS (RD, and IAP domains).	– Only included parenting, temperament and schema factors that were most relevant to depression; – Self-report measures; – The measure of parenting reported experiences from when subjects were children; – Lack of diversity in the sample; – Non-clinical population with depressive symptoms (minimum to moderate ranges); – Participants only reporting the mother as primary caregiver.
Jones¹²	UK	– 66 females with eating disorders – 16 to 59 years old	– To examine the possible moderating role of core beliefs in the relationship between parental rearing behaviors and eating psychopathology	EDI YSQ-SF-3 sEMBU	– SI, VUL, and SS schema moderated the predictive influence of paternal rejection on eating psychopathology; – Both SI and VUL beliefs were found to moderate the relationship between paternal rejection and drive for thinness; – SS beliefs moderated the effect of paternal rejection on body dissatisfaction; – Paternal rejection predicted body dissatisfaction except when the individual held intense, dysfunctional beliefs about needing to meet other people's needs.	– Self-report measures; – Retrospective measure of parental rearing; – The women were a self-selected group and had self reported their current eating psychopathology status.
Jones¹³	UK	– 66 females with current eating psychopathology, 16-59 years old – 50 female volunteers in a non-clinical group, 18-62 years old	– To explore the relationship between recollections of paternal rearing behavior and eating psychopathology – To determine whether specific core beliefs would act as mediators between aspects of parenting and eating symptomatology	EDI YSQ-SF-3 sEMBU	– Negative recollections of paternal rearing behaviors, and higher levels of several core beliefs were related to eating symptomatology; – AB, DS and VUL schema were found to mediate the influence of aspects of paternal rearing behaviors on eating psychopathology; – Paternal rearing behaviors were predictive of eating psychopathology; – Perception of paternal overprotection is predictive of drive for thinness; – Perceived paternal rejection can lead to the development of a combination of fear that significant others will not be able to continue providing emotional support and to underlying feelings of shame and inferiority. – No associations were found between eating psychopathology and perceptions of parenting or core beliefs within the non-clinical group	– Self-report measures; – Retrospective measure of parental rearing; – The women were a self-selected group.
Khajouei Nia¹⁴	Iran and India	– 200 women with depressive symptoms – 16 to 60 years old – 100 from India – 100 from Iran	– To investigate the contribution of parental rearing styles to depression symptoms of women – To examine the role of early maladaptive symptoms as mediators and moderators of this association	BDI YSQ-SF YPI	– The association between parental rearing styles and depressive symptoms was not moderated by EMS; – AB EMS had a mediating role in the relationship between maternal rearing style and depression in Iran; – AB and PP EMS mediated the effects of paternal rearing style and depression in India; – The correlation between childhood experiences and depression in adulthood was mediated by EMS.	– Only female sample.
Kooraneh¹⁵	Iran	– 357 undergraduate students at Islamic Azad University	– To predict EMS using BPS (root development)	YSQ-SF BPI	– The best parenting style was authoritarian, and most schemas belong to the fields of RD, IA, and OVI, respectively; – The authoritarian parenting style could positively predict EMS in the area of RD, either could explain 3.4% of the variance of EMS in the area of OD. – The permissive parenting style could not explain EMS in the areas of RD, IAP, IL, OD or OVI; – The authoritative parenting style could negatively predict EMS in the area of RD, and could explain 3.4% of the variance of EMS in the area of OD, but not in IAP, IL or OVI.	– Self-report measure and a student sample; – The results are not applicable to other communities.
Körük¹⁶	Turkey	– 400 university students (25% male and 75% female)	– To investigate the relationships between perceived parenting parental attachment styles and psychological symptoms	YPI PBI BSI	– Pessimistic/fearful mother, overprotective/worrywart father and emotionally divesting father perceptions meaningfully predicted depression and anxiety; – Pessimistic/fearful mother and belittling/captious mother perceptions meaningfully predicted negative-self symptoms; – Pessimistic/fearful mother, overprotective/worrywart father and belittling/captious mother meaningfully predicted somatization; – Caring/controlling behaviors of the father and protecting behaviors of the mother meaningfully predicted depression in the negative direction; – Caring/controlling behaviors of the mother and protecting behaviors of the father meaningfully predicted anxiety in the negative direction. – Caring/controlling behaviors of the mother and protecting, and caring/controlling behaviors of the father meaningfully predicted negative-self symptoms and hostility in the negative direction.	– Did not report limitations.
Jalali¹⁷	Iran	– 56 opioid dependent males, 20 to 45 years old – 56 not opioid dependent males, 20 to 45 years old	– The aim of this study was to examine differences in early maladaptive schemas and parenting origins between opioid abusers and non-opioid abusers	SCID-I YSQ-L3 YPI	– The means for all EMS in the clinical group were higher than the control group and this was especially more apparent in AB, ED, SI, EG, ISC, SS, AR, US and PU schemas. – The two groups differed significantly in terms of EMS, EMS domains; – The clinical group had higher scores than the control group in terms of parenting origins; – Approximately, all EMS were related to their parenting origins. The only exceptions, where differences in means were not significant, were MA, DS, DI, and FA in mothers' parenting origins, and FA, DV and SS in fathers' parenting origins – Opioid abusers scored higher for EMS and parenting origins than non-opioid abusers and parenting origins were related to their corresponding schemas.	– All participants were male.
Lucadame¹⁸	Uruguay	– 310 Uruguayan university students	– To analyze whether EMS act as mediators between the domains of early parental styles and development of symptoms of depression	YPI YSQ-L3 LSB-50	– For both parents, the EMS of AB, SI and IS mediate the relationship between early perceived parenting styles (from the domains RD and IA) and symptoms of depression for both parents; – EMS mediates the relationship between parental styles and symptoms of depression.	– Self-report instruments.
Lumley¹⁹	Canada	– 198 boys and girls (103 girls, 95 boys) – 9 to 14 years old	– To investigate how cognitive schema organization relates to parental perception and depressive symptoms in early adolescence	CDI MASC CSQ PDST CRPBI	– There was no significant relationship between anxiety symptoms and either positive or negative EMS organization; – Organization of positive and negative EMS was significantly related to depression symptoms; – Negative EMS content was only related with ethnicity; – The analyses show that depression symptoms were related with ethnicity and that anxiety symptoms were related with sex; – High negative EMS scores were associated with high depression scores; – Low parental responsivity levels were significantly associated with major depression symptoms and high levels of psychological control; – Parental psychological control was associated with race/ethnicity – Parental responsivity emerged as the only predictor of the NSO.	– Sample composition: data is not generalizable to other populations; – Self-report instruments.
Monirpoor²⁰	Iran	– 345 university students (218 females, 127 males)	– To assess fathers' roles as predictive of early maladaptive cognitive schemas	YSQ-SF PBI-FF PCRS	– Father care and father emotional involvement predicted 20.7% of the ED schema variance; – Father excessive support and emotional interaction predicted 9.3% of the MA schema variance, 11.7% of the SI schema variance and 13.4% of the DF schema variance; – Father care and excessive support predicted 13.6% of the SUB schema variance. – Father excessive support predicted 0.9% of the AB schema variance, 2.4% of the EM self schema variance and 1.5% of the US schema variance; – Positive father's affection predicted 8.5% of the FA schema variance and 9.4% of the DI schema variance; – Father excessive support and positive father's affection predicted 5.9% of the VUL schema variance; – Relationship with father predicted 8.7% of the EI schema and 5.5% of the EM schema; – Relationship with father and lack of child's anger toward father predicted 8.9% of the ISC schema	– Did not report limitations.
Muris²¹	Netherlands	– 173 non-clinical adolescents (87 boys and 86 girls) – 12 to 15 years old	To investigate whether: – Detrimental parental rearing behaviors are associated with the presence of EMS – The personality trait of neuroticism is positively related to such EMS – Detrimental parenting behaviors and neuroticism each account for a unique proportion of the variance in EMS scores – EMS are associated with psychopathological symptoms	YSQ-A EMBU-C for children BFQC PQY	– Detrimental rearing behaviors were associated with the presence of maladaptive schemas; – The personality trait of neuroticism was positively related to a broad range of maladaptive schemas; – Neuroticism and detrimental parental rearing behaviors both accounted for a unique proportion of the variance in distorted thinking patterns; – Maladaptive schemas were linked to various types of psychological symptoms, including symptoms of anxiety disorders, depression, disruptive behavior, eating problems and substance use. – Parental rearing behaviors accounted for a significant proportion of the variance in YSQ-A scores, except for DI.	– The study was cross-sectional in nature; – Sample of non-clinical adolescents who were predominantly Caucasian, with relatively high educational levels; – The sample was rather small (N=173) and as a result it was not possible to perform factor analysis on the items of the YSQ-A; – Self-report measures; – Unclear whether a questionnaire like the YSQ-A truly measures maladaptive schemas.
Pellerone²²	Italy	– 248 males (130 with anti-social personality disorder, 19 to 70 years old; 118 healthy, 20 to 70 years old)	– To investigate the presence of cognitive schemas, in a group of male adult prisoners – To explore whether parental style influences cognitive patterns in a group of offenders – To investigate the predictive variables of these cognitive schemas in adult offenders	SCID-II PBI YSQ-L3	– The target group have an affectionate constraint attachment with their mother, while one third of the population has a negligent attachment with their father; – Offenders scored significantly higher than non-offenders on the level of paternal control and the YSQ subscales. – The study underlines the influence of maternal care on most of the cognitive schemas, and the role of father's control in the tendency to SI and DS in the offenders; – Being an inmate, having a low level of maternal care and a high level of maternal control are predictive of the tendency to social rejection, and being an inmate with young age, reduced maternal care and high maternal control are predictive of IAP.	– The results in no way allow for casual conjectures; – All tests were self-report; – Small sample size.
Pellerone²³	Italy	– 209 adults (118 males, 91 females) – 20 to 60 years old (M = 37.52; SD = 11.42)	– To verify whether being parents and living at home with parents affect parenting style and cognitive domains – To examine how variables of parenting influence cognitive styles – To examine age as moderating variable of the relation between parenting styles and cognitive domains in a group of adult men and women	PBI YSQ	– Being a younger adult male with mother's parenting style characterized by a lower level of nurturance is predictive of the RD domain, whereas being a younger adult woman, with a higher level of maternal control is predictive of the IL domain; – The analysis of whether being parents and living at home with parents affect parenting or cognitive domains found no significant effect. – The type of maternal parenting affects all domains except SI and SUB; – Age moderates the correlation between parenting behavior and maternal nurturance and IAP domains.	– The results in no way allow for casual conjectures; – Did not use a measure to account for socially desirable responding and/or the tendency to minimize pathology; – Did not use current parental behaviors; – Small sample size that may have limited the generalizability of the findings and the ability to identify other differences in maladaptive schemas.
Shah & Weller²⁴	England	– 60 depressive individuals (17 men, 43 women) – 67 healthy individuals (33 men, 34 women)	– To investigate the possible mediating role of core beliefs in depressive parental relations – To examine whether this relationship between parental rearing styles and depression in adulthood is mediated by the EMS	PBI YSQ BDI	– The experimental group recalled less affectionate and more overprotective parental care, in relation to the control group; – The depressed group were differentiated by poorer perceived parenting (low care and high overprotection); – DS, SS and ISC EMS were more present in the experimental group. – DI, VUL, US and EI EMS mediated the relationship between maternal bond and paternal overprotection and levels of depression in the experimental group.	– Did not report limitations.
Simon²⁵	Hungary	– 47 transsexuals: 30 MF – 17 FM (M = 27.06 years) – 157 controls: 43 men 114 women (M = 23.6 years)	– To characterize MF and FM transsexuals in psychopathology, core conceptualizations of the self and the world, and parenting experiences by comparing them to controls of the same and the opposite sex – To delineate differences in MF and FM transsexuals in these three areas	YSQ YPI SC-90-R	– Subjects with GID demonstrated a level of psychiatric distress comparable to that of controls. – Subjects with GID display elevated scores, however, on multiple EMS compared to nontranssexual subjects, indicating feelings of isolation, emotional deprivation and an urge to meet others' needs, with MF transsexuals also conceptualizing themselves as more vulnerable and deficient than controls. – Parenting experiences of transsexual subjects were characterized by increased maternal dominance, emotional abuse and neglect compared to controls, with males being exposed to a disengaged maternal style and more paternal emotional neglect and criticism. – Both MF and FM transsexuals were made to feel that they will inevitably fail in areas of achievement.	– Retrospective analyses. – Diagnosis interviews. – Not utilizing a psychiatric control group.
Soygüt²⁶	Turkey	– 94 undergraduate students, 17 to 26 years old	– To examine the relationship between the perception of parenting styles and interpersonal schemas – To investigate the role of interpersonal schemas in mediating between the perception of parenting style and psychological symptoms	YPI ISQ SCL-90-R	– Perceived parenting styles have predictive power for a number of interpersonal schemas; – Parenting perceptions showing maximum positive correlations with depression were belittling/captious mother, ruling/former mother, overprotective/worrywart mother and belittling/captious father. – Positive correlations with anxiety were found to be belittling/captious mother, overprotective/worrywart mother, pessimistic/fearful mother, and ruling/former father. – The Hostility situation of interpersonal schemas played a mediating role between psychological symptoms and normative, belittling/criticizing, pessimistic/worried parenting styles on the mother forms; and normative, belittling/criticizing, emotionally depriving, pessimistic/worried, punitive, and restricted/emotionally inhibited parenting styles on the father forms of the scales.	– Limited number of undergraduates in sample; – Assessments were limited to self-reports.
Thimm²⁷	Norway	– 108 participants (75% women) – 19 to 68 years old (M = 40.3)	– To investigate whether EMS mediate the relationship between perceived parental rearing style and personality disorder symptomatology	s-EMBU YSQ-L3 DSM-IV, ICD-10 DIP-Q GAFS BDI	– All schemas were associated with the three personality disorder clusters; – The BDI are related to maternal rejection, to the five schema domains and the personality disorder clusters A, B and C; – The results showed that EMS mediated the relationship between parental rearing styles and personality disorder symptoms; – Rejection from both parents and less emotional warmth from mother were significantly related to cluster A and B personality pathology, whereas cluster C symptoms were associated with paternal rejection; – RD, OD, IAP, OVI were significantly related to parenting rejection.	– Retrospective analyses. – Self-report instruments. – Sample composition – data cannot be generalized to other populations.
Wright²⁸	USA	– 301 undergraduate students (143 men, 158 women); M = 20.37 years	– To study the long-term influences of parental emotional abuse and emotional neglect in young adults, in relation to dissociative, anxiety and depression symptoms – To identify which symptoms were mediated by the EMS	CAST-6 LEQ YSQ TSC-40	– VUL, SS and DS EMS mediated the relationship between emotional neglect and anxiety and depression symptoms. – VUL and DS EMS were mediated in the relationship between the child's emotional neglect and dissociative symptoms. Emotional neglect was related to dissociative symptoms and mediated by DV and VUL EMS. – Sexual abuse was also a significant predictor of dissociation. – Emotional abuse and neglect, alcoholic parents and income were significant predictors of anxiety and depression and were mediated by VUL, DS and SS EMS. – Emotional abuse was significantly correlated to VUL, SS and DS EMS. Emotional abuse and neglect have a greater psychological impact than physical abuse and neglect.	– The data found cannot be generalized to clinical or community populations. – Retrospective analyses.

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