Fused femoral shaft fracture and severe dental wear in a wild ocelot, Leopardus pardalis (Carnivora: Felidae) from the Atlantic Forest, BrazilABSTRACT
Bone lesions and healed fractures provide valuable insights into trauma survival and resilience in wild mammals. Here, we report a case of a fully consolidated femoral diaphyseal fracture associated with advanced dental wear and pathology in a wild ocelot, Leopardus pardalis (Linnaeus, 1758), from the Atlantic Forest of southeastern Brazil. The adult male (MZUFV 5639) was found dead on a highway in 2021 and had cranial measurements within the expected range for the species. Radiographic and morphological analyses revealed a complete spiral fracture of the right femoral shaft, with severe misalignment and formation of an irregular osteogenic callus indicative of malunion. Despite this, full bone consolidation was achieved. The individual showed advanced dental wear, fractured canines, and periodontal disease consistent with senescence. Stomach contents consisted of highly digested feathers and decomposed animal tissue, suggesting possible scavenging behavior. Considering that complete femoral healing in mammals requires several months to over a year, and that this individual was likely 8-9 years old (approaching the species’ maximum lifespan), it is estimated to have survived for a prolonged period before death. This case provides further evidence that L. pardalis can recover from major skeletal trauma under natural conditions, corroborating similar findings reported in Argentina and underscoring the physiological and behavioral resilience of neotropical felids.
KEYWORDS:
bone healing; longevity; osteology; roadkill; skeletal injury; wild felids
Bone lesions are well documented in both living and extinct mammals, providing enduring evidence of nonlethal injuries and post-traumatic survival (Mead and Patterson 2009, Stephens et al. 2018, King 2021). Although often considered uncommon, their prevalence can be surprisingly high in some taxa-reaching up to 64% in opossums (Mead and Patterson 2009) and 36% in gibbons (Schultz 1939). Among non-human primates, the most extensively studied group regarding healed fractures, the relatively high incidence of bone healing has been associated with social behaviors that promote individual survival, such as cooperative feeding and protection from predators (Buikstra 1975, Bulstrode 1990, Jurmain 1997, Paim et al. 2004).
In carnivores, both fossil and extant species, skeletal trauma ranges from minor lesions to severe bone deformities, sometimes revealing patterns of injury related to hunting behavior, intraspecific aggression, or accidents (Brown et al. 2017, King 2021, Serdyuk et al. 2024). For neotropical carnivores, available data on bone fractures and healing are still limited and mostly derived from individuals rescued and treated in captivity (Yong et al. 2018, Marques et al. 2024). In contrast, field evidence from wild individuals remains scarce.
The ocelot, Leopardus pardalis (Linnaeus, 1758), is one of the most widely distributed felids in the Neotropics, occurring from Argentina to Mexico and extending into the southern United States (Grigione et al. 2007, Machado et al. 2017, Amador-Alcalá et al. 2022). Despite its ecological plasticity, detailed osteopathological records for this species are rare, particularly those documenting healed fractures in wild individuals. Recently, however, Chatellenaz et al. (2025) reported a healed femoral fracture in a wild ocelot from Argentina, representing the first documented case of complete bone recovery in this species in the wild.
Here, we report a fully consolidated femoral shaft fracture in a wild Leopardus pardalis from the Atlantic Forest of Brazil, accompanied by advanced dental wear. This case provides new evidence of severe trauma recovery in a free-ranging ocelot and underscores the resilience of neotropical felids in surviving and adapting to major skeletal injuries.
Study area. The specimen, an adult male, was found dead along the BR-381 highway near the municipality of João Monlevade, state of Minas Gerais, southeastern Brazil (19°50’56”S, 43°09’34”W; Fig. 1). It was collected by the Military Police of Minas Gerais on June 13, 2021 and sent to the Museu de Zoologia João Moojen (MZUFV), where it is deposited under catalog number MZUFV 5639. The area is part of the Atlantic Forest biome, originally composed of tropical moist broadleaf forests but now highly degraded and fragmented due to human activities (Olson et al. 2001, Ribeiro et al. 2009).
Location along the BR-381 highway where the ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) specimen MZUFV 5639 was found roadkilled, near the municipality of João Monlevade, Minas Gerais state, Brazil.
Morphological examination. We examined the external morphology of the skeleton of the roadkilled ocelot specimen MZUFV 5639 and compared it with osteologically normal individuals in the same collection (four males and one female). Using a digital caliper, we recorded eight standard femoral measurements: total length (FTL), biomechanical length (FBL), midshaft mediolateral diameter (MMLD), midshaft anteroposterior diameter (MAPD), neck diameter (FND), head diameter (FHD), epicondylar breadth (FEB), and maximum proximal width (MPFW), following the definitions proposed by Trinkaus and Ruff (1999) and Cooke and Tallman (2012).
Femoral measurements were analyzed through Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to assess whether the fractured femur occupied a distinct position in morphospace relative to non-injured individuals. Analyses were conducted in R, and results were visualized using the package ggplot2 (Wickham 2016, R Core Team 2020).
For cranial and mandibular morphology, the following measurements were obtained according to the protocol of Nascimento (2014) for Leopardus geoffroyi: greatest skull length (GSL), condylobasal length (CBL), zygomatic breadth (ZB), braincase breadth (BB), mastoid breadth (MB), maxillary toothrow length (MTL), mandibular toothrow length (MdTL), mandible length (ML), and mandibular ramus height (MRH).
Radiographs of the skull, mandible, and femora of specimen MZUFV 5639 were obtained at the Veterinary Hospital of the Universidade Federal de Viçosa (UFV). Lateral and dorsoventral projections were obtained for the skull and mandible, while mediolateral and craniocaudal projections were taken for the femora. Radiographic settings were 40 kV and 5 mAs for craniocaudal femur images, 43 kV and 5 mAs for mediolateral femur images, and 59 kV and 10 mAs for dorsoventral and lateroventral views of the skull and mandible. Specimen MZUFV 5639 exhibited body measurements within the expected range for Leopardus pardalis, with a head-body length of 78 cm and a tail length of 33 cm (HB = 72.6-100 cm; T = 25.5-41 cm; Sunquist and Sunquist 2009). Body mass was 12.2 kg, also consistent with the reported range of 7-15.5 kg for males of the species (Sunquist and Sunquist 2009). Cranial and mandibular measurements also fell within the expected variation (Table 1). The skull displayed several traumatic and pathological alterations, including evidence of senescence and advanced periodontitis. The left postorbital process was absent, consistent with a healed fracture. The left temporal bone showed a crack near the glenoid fossa, which may represent a postmortem fracture.
Skull, mandible, and right femur measurements (in mm) of six adult ocelots from Minas Gerais, Brazil. The fractured specimen is MZUFV 5639.
The dentition, especially the anterior teeth (canines and incisors), was heavily worn and damaged (Figs 2-3). The upper incisors and molars were in good condition, whereas the canines were severely damaged: the right canine exhibited apical flattening with a central perforation, while the left canine was diagonally fractured (Fig. 2). The lower canines were highly fragmented or absent, and most incisors were missing; only the crowns of the left second and third incisors and the right second incisor were preserved (Fig. 3). The right second lower premolar showed moderate cusp wear. The mandibular symphysis presented marked porosity, suggestive of bone resorption. In the fresh carcass, gingival recession with root exposure was observed, consistent with periodontal disease (Fig. 3).
Dorsal and ventral views of the skull, and ventral view of the mandible, of ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) specimen MZUFV 5639 (A-C), compared with an apparently healthy specimen (MZUFV 5478) (D-F). Both specimens were collected in João Monlevade, Minas Gerais, Brazil. Scale bar: 5.0 cm.
Lateral view of the left dentary of ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) specimen MZUFV 5639, showing periodontal disease (A), and radiograph showing the trabecular bone (B). (C) Anterior dentition of the same specimen, before taxidermy. Scale bar: 5.0 cm.
The healed fracture on the right femur occurred in the diaphysis, with cortical discontinuity, craniocaudal misalignment, and fragment overriding, resulting in a shortening of the limb (Fig. 4). The fracture occurred along the anteroposterior axis, consistent with an impact from a frontal force. Due to the severity of the trauma, bone apposition was insufficient, leading to the formation of an irregular, aberrant osteogenic callus connecting the proximal and distal fragments. These findings are consistent with an old fracture and misaligned bone healing (Fig. 4). Four measurements of the right femur (FTL, FBL, MMLD, MAPD) showed aberrant values due to the malunited fracture, indicating that the bone was shorter and narrower than normal, with asymmetric cortical remodeling (Table 1, Fig. 4). All other femoral and cranial measurements fell within expected variation.
Right femur of an ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) with a healed fracture (specimen MZUFV 5639): posterior (A); anterior (B), with radiograph (C); and medial (D), with radiograph (E). Same views of the left femur (F-J). The specimen was collected as roadkill in João Monlevade, Minas Gerais, Brazil. Scale bar: 4.0 cm.
In the PCA of femoral measurements, the fractured femur was clearly separated from the other specimens, with PC1 explaining 63.6% of the variance and PC2 accounting for 24.5% (Fig. 5, Table 2). Loadings on PC1 were primarily driven by MMLD and MAPD, which showed opposite signs compared to the other variables, indicating that these measurements were aberrant in the fractured specimen. PC2 was mainly influenced by FTL and FBL, both length-related variables, which also showed distinct contributions (Fig. 5, Table 2).
Loadings and variance explained by PC1 and PC2 from femur measurements of six adult ocelots.
Dispersion of specimens along the first two principal components (PC1 and PC2) from a PCA of eight femoral linear measurements in six ocelots (Leopardus pardalis), with biplot vectors representing the measurements. Specimen MZUFV 4985 had a missing left femur. Abbreviations of measurements are provided in Material and Methods. The fractured femur is marked with a distinct symbol.
Radiographic examination of the femur revealed a complete spiral fracture with marked caudal displacement and proximal displacement of the distal fracture fragment (Fig. 4). A pronounced mineralized callus formation was observed between the caudal surface of the proximal fragment and the cranial surface of the distal fragment, consistent with translational malunion (Fig. 4). In the mandible, heterogeneous bone trabeculation was noted, associated with a periosteal reaction in the rostral region involving the incisors and canines. The root of the first lower premolar also appeared compromised. The previously described tooth fractures were confirmed.
The stomach contained feathers, partially decomposed animal tissue, and skeletal remains, likely from a domestic bird carcass. The ingested material was highly fragmented and contained little recognizable bone. Given the advanced degree of digestion observed within the stomach, it is possible that the prey was already in an early stage of decomposition at the time of ingestion, suggesting scavenging behavior or the consumption of a carcass rather than freshly killed prey. Visual inspection of the carcass showed high visceral fat deposition and an elevated body condition score. During preparation, focal subcutaneous hemorrhage was noted between the skin and musculature, consistent with blunt trauma. These observations provide context for interpreting the possible origin and consequences of the injuries described in this specimen.
A femoral fracture and severe dental damage observed in specimen MZUFV 5639 could have resulted from a high-impact event, such as a vehicle collision, given the intensity and severity of the femoral trauma. Roadkill studies in southeastern and central-western Brazil indicate that bone fractures are among the most frequent macroscopic findings in medium- and large-sized mammals (Navas-Suárez et al. 2022), with ocelots representing approximately 3% of the specimens. In São Paulo state, annual estimates suggest that 19-997 ocelots are roadkilled each year (Abra et al. 2021), indicating that vehicle collisions represent a significant threat to ocelots in southeastern Brazil. The use of snares or other trapping methods is rare in Brazil, making accidental capture or intentional human-inflicted injuries unlikely causes of the observed injuries (García-Perea 2000, King 2021). Given the solitary and territorial habits of ocelots, long-term survival after major injuries would be expected to be uncommon in natural conditions.
Nevertheless, survival and natural bone healing after severe fractures have been documented in other wild felids, including several Lynx species, such as the extinct Lynx issiodorensis (Serdyuk et al. 2024), the European Lynx pardinus (García-Perea 2000), and the North American Lynx rufus (Argyros and Roth 2016), as well as in other carnivores (Scott et al. 2015, Salesa et al. 2024). Notably, a recent study described a femoral diaphyseal fracture in a wild ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) from northeastern Argentina, which healed under natural conditions despite limb shortening (Chatellenaz et al. 2025). This independent observation corroborates our findings and demonstrates that such injuries do not necessarily prevent long-term survival in wild Neotropical spotted cats.
The dental damage observed in MZUFV 5639 was severe, particularly in the anterior teeth. The upper incisors and molars were mostly intact, whereas the canines exhibited flattening, perforations, or fractures, and several lower incisors were missing or highly worn. While some of these lesions could reflect trauma from a high-impact event, they may also be attributed to age-related wear, chronic periodontal disease, or pre-existing dental pathology, considering the advanced age of the specimen. Chronic periodontal disease has been associated with systemic health effects in domestic cats (O’Neill et al. 2023) and could have indirectly influenced metabolic condition and foraging behavior.
Stomach contents, primarily highly digested feathers and partially decomposed animal tissue, suggest opportunistic feeding, possibly scavenging on domestic birds. The fragmentary nature of this material and its advanced digestion may indicate that the specimen had begun decomposing prior to consumption, although this remains speculative. Dietary flexibility, including scavenging, may have helped the ocelot meet its energetic needs despite compromised dentition (Merola and Mills 2015, Plaza and Lambertucci 2017).
Bone healing in MZUFV 5639 had progressed beyond the inflammatory, soft callus, and hard callus stages, achieving complete consolidation of the femoral fracture despite fragment malalignment. In mammals, complete healing of a femoral fracture typically takes several months to over a year (Marsell and Einhorn 2011). Given that this individual was estimated to be 8-9 years old, possibly approaching 10, surviving this period after injury represents a substantial fraction of its expected lifespan, highlighting the remarkable resilience of the specimen. Limb shortening and cortical asymmetry, while evident, apparently did not preclude normal locomotor activity, as indicated by the individual’s good body condition and visceral fat reserves.
These findings provide strong evidence that wild ocelots can survive severe skeletal and dental trauma over extended periods. The second known case, reported in Argentina (Chatellenaz et al. 2025), strengthens this conclusion, emphasizing that such injuries, even in solitary, non-social carnivores, do not necessarily preclude long-term survival in natural conditions. This new evidence suggests that ocelots may possess greater physiological and behavioral resilience than previously assumed.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Pollyanna Alves de Barros, Gisele Lessa, and Adrielli Ribeiro Araujo for their assistance in transporting the specimen to Viçosa, and the staff of the Hospital Veterinário of the Universidade Federal de Viçosa (UFV) for providing access to facilities and equipment. We also thank the Polícia Militar de Minas Gerais for logistical support and collaboration, and two anonymous reviewers for their valuable insights.
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