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Research Article • Zoologia (Curitiba) 42 • 2025 • https://doi.org/10.1590/S1984-4689.v42.e24059 linkcopy

Open-access No longer restricted to Asia: the exotic snail Solenomphala scalaris (Caenogastropoda: Assimineidae) is widespread in Brazil

AuthorshipSCIMAGO INSTITUTIONS RANKINGS

    ABSTRACT

    The assimineid Solenomphala scalaris (Heude, 1882) is present in the interface between freshwater and terrestrial habitats. It was originally described from China, but it has been recently recorded it from Singapore and Malaysia, in addition to possible records from Taiwan, Japan and Elba, Italy. Sampling efforts in four Brazilian states (Amazonas, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Santa Catarina) since 2009 recovered specimens similar to S. scalaris, always in anthropic sites. The shell, operculum, radula and penis largely agree with descriptions and images of S. scalaris available in the literature. The mitochondrial gene COI was sequenced for 25 specimens from Brazil, revealing that two genetic lineages (diverged by 1.9-2.5%) are widespread in that country, one of which is also present in China and Taiwan. Additional sampling in native and non-native sites is required to test whether S. scalaris is synonymous with other species from East Asia. Solenomphala scalaris is a cryptic exotic species; due to its minute shell and simple morphology, S. scalaris has most likely gone unnoticed in its introduced range.

    KEYWORDS:
    DNA; freshwater gastropod; non-native species; Solenomphala taiwanensis; taxonomy; terrestrial gastropod

    INTRODUCTION

    Assimineidae is a caenogastropod family distributed worldwide. The included species often show terrestrial to amphibious habits, i.e., they move between the water and the land (Fukuda and Ponder 2003). The assimineid Solenomphala scalaris (Heude, 1882), a small gastropod (~5 mm long) originally described from China, has been recorded in Singapore and Malaysia as a non-native species (Tan et al. 2012, Marzuki et al. 2021, Sow-Yan and Lup 2021, Foon and Marzuki 2023, Nasir et al. 2024). The geographic range of this species may be considerably wider if Solenomphala taiwanensis (Habe, 1942) from Taiwan, and Solenomphala debilis (Gould, 1859) and Solenomphala rubida (Gould, 1859), both from Japan, are confirmed as synonyms of Solenomphala scalaris, as proposed by Fukuda and Ponder (2003). If those species are confirmed as synonyms, the nomenclatural priority belongs to S. debilis. Despite the uncertainty related to the specific name, the record of Solenomphala sp. in Elba (Italy) also suggests an introduction derived by plants imported from tropical Asia (Benocci et al. 2014). Only two COI (cytochrome c oxidase subunit I) sequences are currently available for these Asian species at the NCBI’s GenBank database (DQ533866, from Taiwan; JX970601, from China), which makes it difficult to investigate the validity of the species in question.

    According to records from China, Singapore and Malaysia, S. scalaris occurs in freshwater (Yipp 1990) or terrestrial (but moist) habitats (Heude 1882, Marzuki et al. 2021, Sow-Yan and Lup 2021, Foon and Marzuki 2023), e.g., in “wet situations near small freshwater streams” (Fukuda and Ponder 2003). The species has occasionally been described as inhabiting an amphibious habitat (Yen 1941, Marzuki et al. 2021). Similarly, its congeneric species (and possible synonymies) were also recorded from freshwater (Pace 1973, Chiu et al. 2023) or terrestrial moist sites (Huang et al. 2013), as informed by Benocci et al. (2014): “[it is] substantially terrestrial, albeit limited to the frequently watered plant nursery in which it was discovered” in Elba. Solenomphala scalaris is often cited as gregarious snails, grazing on algae or mud detritus and able to live on artificial structures (Tan et al. 2012, Sow-Yan and Lup 2021), in addition to varied natural habitats, such as mangroves (Gao and Li 1985 apud Yu et al. 1997, Lin et al. 2006, Chen et al. 2007).

    Recent sampling efforts in some Brazilian states recovered specimens similar to S. scalaris, always in anthropic sites, but in varied habitats, such as in freshwater, in the interface between freshwater and land, and even in a citrus greenhouse. We present the results of the molecular identification of these specimens based on sequencing of the mitochondrial gene COI, in addition to a morphological examination.

    MATERIAL AND METHODS

    The material was mostly obtained by the authors, in the field, and in recent years, covering four Brazilian states (Amazonas, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Santa Catarina; Fig. 1 and Appendix 1). It is stored in the scientific collections of the following institutions: Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (CMIOC); Museu Nacional, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (MNRJ); Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo (MZUSP - acronym for lots: MZSP); Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (ColMolUERJ). Empty shells and live specimens are indicated in the material examined by ‘sh’ and ‘spm’, respectively.

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    Figure 1
    (A) Geographic range of the exotic Solenomphala scalaris in Brazil, evidencing Brazilian states and freshwater ecoregions. (B-E) Some anthropic sites in which S. scalaris was sampled from Brazil, see lot numbers in the subsection ‘Material examined’: (B) CMIOC 15175; (C) ColMolUERJ 15625; (D) MNRJ 22786; (E) CMIOC 13290. AM: Amazonas; MG: Minas Gerais; PR: Paraná; RJ: Rio de Janeiro; SC: Santa Catarina; SP: São Paulo. Credits to Cleo Oliveira for Fig. 1D.

    Shells and parts of dissected specimens (e.g., penis and fecal pellets) were photographed under a Leica DFC450 camera coupled to a Leica M205C stereomicroscope. Specimens properly preserved in ethanol had their foot removed for genetic procedures (see below). Operculum and radulae were extracted from two specimens and imaged through a SEM (scanning electron microscope) equipment JEOL 6490-LV. The terminology used for the lateral and marginal (inner and outer) teeth follows the main literature in Assimineidae (e.g., Fukuda and Ponder 2003), although the inner marginal teeth are morphologically much more similar to the lateral teeth than to the outer marginal teeth. Measurements of the length of the basal plate for each tooth did not include the cutting edge (which has cusps).

    DNA was extracted with a Qiagen DNeasy Blood and Tissue kit or with a Macherey-Nagel NucleoSpin Tissue kit, following the manufacturers’ protocol, with the quality of the extraction measured through a Nanodrop 2000 spectrophotometer. The following reagents were used for the amplification of the COI gene fragment: 1 U Platinum Taq DNA Polymerase (Invitrogen), in proprietary buffer (1x), 3.0 mM MgCl2, 0.8 mg/mL BSA, 0.2 mM dNTP, 0.4 µM for each primer, in addition to 20-50 ng of DNA, totaling 25 µL per reaction. The most successful combination of primers was the forward Cox AF (Colgan et al. 2003) with the reverse jgHCO2198 (Geller et al. 2013). The thermocycling profile was: initial denaturation at 95 °C (5’); 36 cycles of denaturation at 95 °C (45”), annealing at 50 °C (45”), extension at 72 °C (1’30”), followed by a final extension at 72 °C (5’). Results of PCRs were evaluated with a TAE 1.2% agarose gel electrophoresis. PCR products were purified and sequenced by Macrogen Inc. (Korea) in both directions, using the same PCR primers. The 28 new COI sequences were aligned and merged in contigs through the software MEGA 7, using the algorithm MUSCLE, and submitted to the GenBank database (Table 1).

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    Table 1
    COI sequences used for the phylogenetic reconstruction, comprising new sequences or those from GenBank. Species identification followed updated names on MolluscaBase (2024); an asterisk mark in Pseudomphala latericea (Adams & Adams, 1864) indicates this identification is uncertain (Dr. Hiroshi Fukuda, pers. comm.). For detailed data about the material herein studied, see the Results section.

    The outgroup selection for the phylogenetic trees comprised two steps: in the first, new sequences were screened through BLAST searches in order to evaluate sequences with >90% of similarity; in the second step, the remaining NCBI’s GenBank sequences of Assimineidae with more than 630 bp were included, discarding taxa without specific identification and often restricting to a single sequence per species. The name given to some species in the present study are different from the names on GenBank because specific names were updated following MolluscaBase (2024) (Table 1). Sequences with ambiguous nucleotides were also avoided, and the final alignment had 638 bp. In order to root the tree, Coxiella striata (Reeve, 1842) was selected because it belongs to the sister group of Assimineidae (Criscione and Ponder 2013).

    The maximum-likelihood tree was computed in PhyML 3.0 (Guindon et al. 2010), following Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) automatic selection, with 1000 bootstrap (BS) replications and an initial tree automatically calculated with Neighbor-Joining; the selected model by AIC was GTR + G + I (Llk: −3798.7). A Bayesian inference was conducted on MrBayes 3.2.7 (Ronquist et al. 2012) without a priori model, with one million generations applied to two independent runs with four chains each, trees sampled after every 100th cycle; the burn-in was defined to 25%. Genetic distances (‘p’, uncorrected) were calculated with MEGA 7. The haplotype network was restricted to sequences of S. scalaris, and it was created on Network 5.0, under a median-joining network (Bandelt et al. 1999). Haplotype and nucleotide diversities were estimated on DnaSP v.6 (Rozas et al. 2017), but were restricted to the COI sequences of S. scalaris from Brazil (n = 25 sequences).

    RESULTS

    Distribution and habitat

    The records from Brazil are primarily concentrated in the Southeast (Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo states) and South (Santa Catarina state) regions, with a single record outside this area, in the state of Amazonas (North region; Fig. 1A). The species was recorded in six ecoregions (based on Abell et al. 2008): Rio Negro, Paraíba do Sul, Ribeira do Iguape, Southeastern Mata Atlântica, Upper Paraná, and Fluminense (Fig. 1A). The species was typically found in anthropic habitats, such as small ponds and streams in urban areas, often near the air-water interface (Fig. 1B-E).

    Morphological description

    Shell (Fig. 2 A-F, 2I): globose, thin, mainly smooth (except for some weak spiral microsculpture, more evident at the body whorl), cream to light brown, up to 5.4 mm long, 3.8 mm wide, ratio length/width 1.3-1.4, with convex whorls; protoconch smooth, nearly indistinct from the teleoconch; the body whorl occupies 71-80% of the adult shell length; umbilicus oblique, shallow, adjacent to the median portion of the inner lip; pyriform aperture, up to 2.6 mm long, 1.8 mm wide, ratio length/width 1.4-1.5. Head-foot (Figs 2G-H, 3A): well-developed, bilobed snout, and eye stalks; males with penis up to 1.8 mm long (post-mortem), representing 29-34% of respective shell length; operculum elliptical, light brown, paucispiral, nucleus moderately eccentric, dislocated 44% from center towards margin. Radula (Fig. 3B-F): formula 1-2-1-2-1. Central tooth with an elongated rectangular plate (although not seen complete), up to 17.6 µm wide; fully formed central tooth with nine triangular cusps (4-1-4) in the cutting edge, with a gradual size increase from the minute marginal cusps towards the robust central cusp, which is shovel-shaped and up to 7.6 µm long, 7.0 µm wide, ratio length/width 1.1-1.8. Lateral tooth with an elongated rectangular plate, up to 60.5 µm long, 18.2 µm wide, ratio length/width 3.5-3.6; fully formed teeth with seven triangular cusps (2-1-4, from the cusps closest to the central tooth towards those closest to the marginal teeth), of which the third cusp is much developed and lanceolate to shovel-shaped, up to 12.5 µm long, 5.2 µm wide (ratio length/width 1.7-3.0), with cusps decreasing in size towards the margins. Inner marginal teeth with an elongated rectangular plate, up to 68.2 µm long, 13.9 µm wide, ratio length/width 4.2-4.9, cutting edge with six to nine triangular cusps, moderately similar in size, with central cusps (up to 8.4 µm long, 4.0 µm wide, ratio length/width 1.7-2.9) larger than marginal ones. Outer marginal teeth with an elongated rectangular plate, fan-shaped at the distal portion, up to 65.5 µm long, 40.1 µm wide (right below the cutting edge), ratio length/width 1.6-2.3; cutting edge restricted to a much narrow distal portion of teeth, with up to 63 small, triangular cusps, up to 3.2 µm long, 1.4 µm wide, with marginal cusps much reduced.

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    Figure 2
    Morphology of Solenomphala scalaris from Brazil. Shells (A-F), penis (G), head-foot (H - operculum and roof of mantle cavity removed), protoconch (I) and fecal pellets (J). (A, B, G) MNRJ 22786, respectively GenBank sequences PQ059545 and PQ059546; (C, I) CMIOC 13280, GenBank sequence PQ059542; (D, E) CMIOC 15174, respectively GenBank sequences PQ059554 and PQ059553; (F, J) MZSP 120115, GenBank sequence PQ059557; (H) CMIOC 14599, specimen not sequenced. Scale bars: A-F, H-J = 1 mm; G = 500 µm.

    thumbnail of Figure 3
    Figure 3
    Morphology of Solenomphala scalaris from Brazil. Operculum (A) and radulae (B-F). (A-C) MNRJ 22786, GenBank sequence PQ059545; (D-F) MZSP 120115, GenBank sequence PQ059557. Scale bars: A = 500 µm; B = 50 µm; C, D = 20 µm; E, F = 10 µm.

    Genetic analyses

    Based on COI evidence, the exotic snail S. scalaris is confirmed in four Brazilian states, comprising the North, South and Southeastern regions of the country (Fig. 4). Two genetic lineages were identified, diverging by 1.9-2.5% (uncorrected p-distances) and separated by 12 mutational steps in the haplotype network (Fig. 4B). One lineage (herein named ‘A’) is shared between China, Taiwan and the four Brazilian states which had sampling (Amazonas, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, and Santa Catarina), whereas the other lineage (‘B’) was sequenced from all these Brazilian states except Amazonas (Figs 1, 4). The haplotype and nucleotide diversities of the introduction in Brazil (excluding sequences from China and Taiwan) were respectively 0.713 ± 0.056 and 0.01091 ± 0.00067, but each lineage was composed of only three near haplotypes (Fig. 4B).

    thumbnail of Figure 4
    Figure 4
    (A) Phylogenetic tree obtained for the COI gene, showing topology recovered by Bayesian Inference. Indices of bootstrap (Maximum Likelihood) and posterior probability (Bayesian Inference) are respectively displayed above and below branches; the symbol ‘X’ indicates values inferior to 0.5 (50%) or that the clade was not recovered by Maximum Likelihood. (B) Haplotype network obtained for the COI gene for Solenomphala scalaris. Numbers of individuals per haplotype are indicated next to the circles, except in singletons. White dot indicates medium vector. Rectangular marks indicate mutational steps.

    DISCUSSION

    Based on DNA and morphological evidence, this is the first study to record S. scalaris outside of East Asia. The record of Solenomphala sp. from Elba, Italy (Benocci et al. 2014) is most likely S. scalaris, since it is morphologically similar in the shell, penial and radular features [see also the similar morphological description by Heude (1882), based on specimens from China]. DNA data is, however, necessary to confirm this. We expect that S. scalaris will be recorded from other countries in the next decades. The small dimensions and simple shell morphology make it easy for this snail to go unnoticed after a ‘silent introduction’. Hopefully, the present study will attract attention to this species.

    Agudo-Padrón et al. (2013) recorded Assiminea sp. from four municipalities in the state of Santa Catarina (southern Brazil), all in the hydrographic basin of the Itajaí River, the same basin of our new record from the city of Itajaí. Based on the reexamination of the lot MZSP 114504 (studied by Agudo-Padrón et al. 2013), we confirm that this record belongs to S. scalaris. Agudo-Padrón et al. (2013) also found the specimens in an amphibious interface, feeding on vegetable detritus and small algae, which agree with our observations-e.g., in the fecal pellets typical of a depositivorous feeding (Fig. 2J). Ximenes et al. (2022) and Moreira et al. (2024) recorded Assiminea sp. from the Botanical Garden of Rio de Janeiro. Although we could not obtain DNA sequences from the specimens studied by those authors, their morphology is identical to the morphology of specimens that have been sequenced. Therefore, we update their taxonomic identifications from Assiminea sp. to S. scalaris. We highlight that the single native assimineid from Brazil, Angustassiminea succinea (Pfeiffer, 1840), is an estuarine species (Marcus and Marcus 1965, Rios 2009) with a different shell morphology.

    Because of its amphibious habits, S. scalaris may have been introduced from varied sources, for example ornamental plants or aquarium trade. The oldest sampling events of S. scalaris in Brazil date back to 2009. A candidate for the source population is that from Guarulhos, state of São Paulo (lot MZSP 142804, sampled in viii/2009); perhaps not by coincidence, the city of Guarulhos houses the largest Brazilian airport, with 72,380 international flights and 202,537 national flights in 2023 (GRU Airport 2024). Other primary receptors cannot be discarded, such as maritime ports, because our current knowledge about this introduction is still incipient. For example, the first observation of S. scalaris in a polluted stream from Ilha Grande, state of Rio de Janeiro, is from xi/2009 (I. Gonçalves, unpublished data). A nearly simultaneous sampling of the species occurred in Rio de Janeiro’s Botanical Garden, from v/2009 to ii/2011 (Ximenes et al. 2022), a locality with several introduced aquatic plants. Most likely, these small snails have been transported unnoticed between secondary Brazilian ports/airports/roads in the last 15 years, which has resulted in their widespread distribution in the country (Fig. 1). The species’ range, however, is still underestimated. We highlight that S. scalaris is not restricted to typical freshwater sites such as rivers, lakes or ponds, as observed in some of the present records (e.g., CMIOC 11437, in a citrus greenhouse; CMIOC 15175, in a wet wall above a water fountain, Fig. 1B). All it needs is a stable moist substrate.

    Two genetic lineages (possibly consisting of two different populations) of S. scalaris are present in Brazil, suggesting two introduction events. However, it is also possible that there was a single introduction of a founder population that was represented by two lineages. To fully understand this question, the analysis of more DNA sequences from both native and non-native sites are required. It is also important to clarify where exactly is the native range of S. scalaris. The species was originally described from Shanghai (Heude 1882), and is possibly synonymous with other species of Solenomphala from the East Asia (Fukuda and Ponder 2003). The single sequence previously present in GenBank and which has been identified as S. scalaris is from China. It has the same COI haplotype as a single GenBank sequence identified as S. taiwanensis (Fig. 4B), from Taiwan. The identification of S. scalaris from China was done by Wilke et al. (2013) and Hershler et al. (2007) identified S. taiwanensis.

    Solenomphala scalaris is not a predator or an engineering species, despite forming dense aggregates in favorable conditions (Gao and Li 1985 apud Yu et al. 1997), and it is expected that it will not promote significant trophic alterations in the introduced sites. However, because this snail moves between freshwater and terrestrial microhabitats, its possible role as a dispersal agent of diseases in both environments cannot be discarded. This is the case with many invasive aquatic and land gastropods in Brazil (Barbosa et al. 2020, Lopes et al. 2021). For example, S. taiwanensis is a secondary intermediate host of the trematode Echinostoma macrorchis Ando & Ozaki, 1923 (Lo 1995), which may cause severe epigastric or abdominal pain, diarrhea, malnutrition and fatigue in humans (Sohn and Na 2017). Species of other genera of Assimineidae serve as intermediate hosts for various trematodes (Abbott 1958, Rybakov 1989, Kim et al. 2014, Sritongtae et al. 2015), although often at low infection levels. Another research line that requires further study concerns which animals may feed on Solenomphala, such as insects, crustaceans, or even juvenile frogs (Nakamura and Tominaga 2021), as well as whether S. scalaris may outcompete some native grazers, as suggested for other assimineids in introduced sites (Laferriere et al. 2010).

    ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

    We are grateful to Luiz Ricardo Simone (MZUSP) for granting access to the exemplars of S. scalaris stored in that collection; the team of Centro Brasileiro de Pesquisas Físicas (LABNANO/CBPF), for providing access to their SEM equipment; and the Herpetology sector of MNRJ, for allowing us to use their camera. We also thank Hiroshi Fukuda (Okayama University) and an anonymous reviewer for their valuable comments on the manuscript. This research was supported by Fundação Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ, E-26/201.347/2021 and E-26/204.446/2024 to Igor Christo Miyahira), and the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq, Universal 434964/2018-2 to Sonia Barbosa dos Santos).

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    ADDITIONAL NOTES

    • Funding
      Fundação Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ, E-26/201.347/2021 and E-26/204.446/2024), Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq, Universal 434964/2018-2). This research was supported by Fundação Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ, E-26/201.347/2021 and E-26/204.446/2024 to Igor Christo Miyahira), and the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq, Universal 434964/2018-2 to Sonia Barbosa dos Santos).
    • ZooBank register
    • How to cite this article
      Fernandes MR, Miyahira IC, Gonçalves ICB, Santos SB, Salgueiro F, Ramos-de-Souza J, Gomes SR (2025) No longer restricted to Asia: the exotic snail Solenomphala scalaris (Caenogastropoda: Assimineidae) is widespread in Brazil. Zoologia 42: e24059. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1984-4689.v42.e24059
    • Published by
      Sociedade Brasileira de Zoologia at Scientific Electronic Library Online - https://www.scielo.br/zool

    Appendix

    Appendix 1. Material examined of Solenomphala scalaris in Brazil.

    Brazil: Amazonas state: CMIOC 13280, 02º58’54”S, 60º03’ 08”W, in a wet soil, close to a small lake, Tarumã, Manaus, Fiocruz team coll., xii/2021 [8 spm]. Rio de Janeiro state: MNRJ 22786, 22º28’55”S, 42º57’33”W, 203 m a.s.l., in a shallow artificial canal (~10 cm of water level), Condomínio Parque da Serra da Caneca Fina, Guapimirim, M.R. Fernandes coll., 29/v/2022 [10 spm]; CMIOC 14599, 22º58’05”S, 43º13’17”W, Jardim Botânico, Rio de Janeiro, Fiocruz team coll., 16/vi/2021 [2 spm]; CMIOC 15175, 22º52’29”S, 43º14’47”W, in a wet wall above a water fountain, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro, Fiocruz team coll., viii/2023 [5 spm]; CMIOC 15174, 22º59’09”S, 43º27’54”W, in a ditch, Vargem Pequena, Rio de Janeiro, Fiocruz team coll., 18/xii/2023 [3 spm]; ColMolUERJ 15625, 23º08’32”S, 44º10’01”W, in a polluted stream, Vila do Abraão, Ilha Grande, Angra dos Reis, 23/x/2015 [3 spm]. São Paulo state: MZSP 120115, 22º29’56”S 48º33’56”W, Rio Tietê, Barra Bonita, W.Y. Ishikawa coll., 2014 [3 spm]; MZSP 142804, Guarulhos, 25/viii/2009 [8 spm]; MZSP 152779, 23º31’00”S, 46º38’00”W, Rio Tietê, Parque Anhembi, São Paulo, 29/v/2012 [2 spm]; MZSP 140514, São Paulo, 02/x/2012 [1 spm]; MZSP 139227, Mogi das Cruzes, 11/viii/2010 [3 sh]; MZSP 140515, Guararema, 14/viii/2012 [1 spm]; MZSP 140517, Guararema, 21/vi/2012 [1 spm]; MZSP 134510, 23º57’56”S, 46º20’57”W, Orquidário Municipal de Santos, Santos, 13/v/2017 [1 spm]; CMIOC 13290, 23º56’49”S, 46º21’12”W, watering hole drained from a building, Morro Nova Cintra, Santos, Fiocruz team coll., v/2022 [18 spm]; MZSP 152398, 24º13’13”S, 47º00’14”W, Peruíbe, G. Rosa coll., 26/vii/2019 [1 sh]. Santa Catarina state: CMIOC 11437, 26°57’08”S, 48°45’41”W, under wet tiles in a citrus greenhouse, Itajaí, E.R. Hickel coll., 20/vii/2018 [28 spm]; MZSP 114504, Rio Merdinha, Rodeio, 14/viii/2013 [33 spm].

    Edited by

    • Editorial responsibility
      Rosana M. da Rocha

    Data availability

    Data citations

    MolluscaBase (2024) Assimineidae. Available on: https://www.molluscabase.org/

    Publication Dates

    • Publication in this collection
      07 Apr 2025
    • Date of issue
      2025

    History

    • Received
      10 Sept 2024
    • Accepted
      10 Dec 2024
    Creative Common - by 4.0
    This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License
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