Fruit production and oil quality of avocado cultivars in a high-altitude subtropical regionABSTRACT
Olive oil has excellent chemical and nutraceutical properties. In the tropics, there are not climatic conditions for the large-scale production of oil. An alternative option is the production of avocado oil, which has properties similar to those of olive oil. The ‘Hass’ and ‘Fuerte’ avocado are the most used for oil extraction. As the climate affects the chemical characteristics of the fruit, it is possible that other cultivars may also produce quality oil. This study aimed to evaluate the productive performance and oil quality of different avocado cultivars in a high-altitude subtropical region. In two cycles, the productive performances of the cultivars ‘Breda’, ‘Fortuna’, ‘Margarida’, and ‘Quintal’, at 5 and 6 years old, were evaluated. In the second production cycle, the longitudinal and transverse diameters of the fruits and the percentage of pulp, peel, and core in relation to the total mass of the fruits, in addition to the percentage of moisture in the pulp, dry mass, and oil (total lipids), were determined. The acidity level, peroxide index, specific extinction in the ultraviolet spectrum, and the composition of fatty acids were determined from the oil extracted. The cultivars showed good productive performance in the high-altitude subtropical region. ‘Fortuna’ and ‘Margarida’ were the most productive ones. The ‘Breda’, ‘Fortuna’, and ‘Quintal’ avocado oils had the highest proportions of oleic acid, and the ‘Margarida’ oil had a higher proportion of palmitic linoleic acid. The percentages of oleic acid in the oils of the four cultivars studied, originating from a high-altitude subtropical region, were high.
Key words
Persea americana
; lipid; yield; chemical composition
INTRODUCTION
Olive oil extracted from olive fruits (Olea europaea) is widely consumed worldwide due to its chemical and nutraceutical properties. Its composition includes unsaturated fatty acids, polyphenols, vitamin E, carotenoids, sterols, and chlorophylls (Merás et al. 2018).
The main olive oil-producing countries are located in the Mediterranean region, primarily Spain, Italy, and Greece, in addition to other countries such as Portugal, Australia, and New Zealand (Rodrigues et al. 2019). In South America, Argentina and Chile are the main producers and exporters of olives and olive oil. In Brazil, olive production and olive oil extraction have recently started in two very distinct zones: in the temperate regions of the state of Rio Grande do Sul, and in the high-altitude subtropical zones in the south of the state of Minas Gerais (Silva et al. 2012).
Countries in the tropics, with a dominant tropical and subtropical climate, do not have suitable climatic conditions for the large-scale production of olive oil (Pio et al. 2018). Thus, these countries depend on exports, which hinders the sale of fresh and young oils.
An alternative to olive oil in countries in the tropics is avocado oil (Persea americana). Avocado is a highly productive fruit tree. There are several cultivars that show great variation in fruit production time and pulp oil content (Silva et al. 2014), which can ensure staggered oil extraction, optimizing the avocado oil production process. This variation occurs because the plants have different phenological responses to differing climatic conditions and cultivation site altitudes.
Studies have indicated that avocado oil is similar to olive oil, mainly due to its composition of fatty acids, predominantly oleic acid (Tango et al. 2004, Oliveira et al. 2013). The global production of avocado oil that supplies the food sector is small, and there is ample space in the market. Avocado can yield up to 2,800 L of oil per ha; in comparison, soybean yields 400 L of oil per ha (Almeida et al. 2018), ‘Grappolo’ olive oil yields 480 L of oil per ha, and ‘Arbequina’ 60 L of oil per ha, in subtropical regions (Silva et al. 2012).
Regarding its nutritional profile, avocado oil is characterized by high levels of monounsaturated fatty acids, moderate contents of saturated fatty acids, and low contents of polyunsaturated fatty acids (Almeida et al. 2018). Another characteristic of avocado oil is its content of phenolic compounds, such as procyanidins, catechins, vanillins, hydroxyphenylacetic acid, among others (Rueda et al. 2016).
Avocado pulp has a lipid content between 5 and 30%. Thus, cultivars with high-fruit production and pulp lipid contents may serve as an important raw material for obtaining quality oil. In addition, the extracted avocado oil can be also refined and used in cooking. The highest lipid contents in avocado pulp are found in the cultivars ‘Fuerte’ (26.12%) and ‘Hass’ (21.07%), with a predominance of oleic acid, despite the small size of the fruits (Oliveira et al. 2013). The fruits of these two cultivars have on average a mass of 200 g, whereas other cultivars, such as ‘Fortuna’ and ‘Quintal’, may have four to five times more mass (Silva et al. 2014). Thus, it is appropriate to evaluate the productive potential of the fruits, productivity per ha, and the quality of the avocado oil of other cultivars to determine the potential for these two additional cultivars.
Thus, this study aimed to evaluate the productive performance and oil quality of different avocado cultivars in a high-altitude subtropical region.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experiment was conducted in the municipality of Carmo da Cachoeira, state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. The production unit is located at 21°46’S, 45°22’W, at 935 m above sea level. According to Köppen classification, the climate of the region is Cwb, i.e., high-altitude subtropical (mesothermal).
The avocado seedlings were produced by grafting. A spacing of 7 m between plants and 10 m between planting rows was adopted. Seedlings of ‘Breda’, ‘Fortuna’, ‘Margarida’, and ‘Quintal’ avocado trees were taken to the field in November 2015. To prepare the area, 2 t of limestone were applied per ha, and the foundation was fertilized with 15 L of organic matter, in addition to mineral sources of phosphorus and potassium. The calculations were performed by analyzing soil in the 0–20 cm layer.
Throughout the entire production unit, avocado trees were intercropped with coffee plants. The avocado cultivars were in alternate rows, i.e., a continuous planting row with each avocado cultivar. This arrangement aimed to improve the efficiency of fruit fixation due to the protogynous dichogamy of avocado (Oliveira et al. 2013). Then, six blocks were marked, containing four continuous rows with each of the cultivars. Each block consisted of seven plants from each avocado cultivar, and only the five central plants were evaluated. The treatments consisted of the four avocado cultivars.
In 2021 and 2022, field evaluations were performed. The harvest seasons occurred in early September, when all cultivars had fruits at physiological maturation. The fruits were counted to determine the mean number of fruits. A field analytical scale with capacity of 200 kg was used to weigh the fruits to determine the amount produced. The estimated yield was calculated by determining the number of plants in 1 ha, where 10,000 m2 was divided by the area planted, which was obtained by multiplying the spacing between plants (7 m) by the spacing between rows (10 m); this value was multiplied by the production, converted into t·ha-1. With a graduated ruler used for surveying, the average height and width of the plant was quantified based on its most extreme points. A randomly chosen sample of 20 fruits per experimental unit was used, to determine the average fruit mass, by an analytical digital scale.
In the subsequent evaluations, only fruits harvested in 2022 were used. Initially, the longitudinal and transverse diameter of the fruits and the percentages of pulp, peel, and seed were determined in relation to the total mass of the fruits, and the percentage of moisture in the pulp, pulp dry mass, and oil in the dry pulp (total lipids) were evaluated, according to the methodology described by the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (apud Rueda et al. 2016).
After the physicochemical evaluations of the fruits, oil was extracted from each cultivar using an Abencor system. Initially, the mass of each cultivar was ground in a hammer mill (3,000 RPM) and mixed with a thermomixer (50 RPM) for 30 min at the temperature of 38°C. Subsequently, the pulp was centrifuged (3,500 RPM) for 60 seconds, and the extracted liquid phase was recovered in a glass beaker. After a period of decantation, the lipids were recovered using a glass pipette.
After obtaining the avocado oil samples, all laboratory procedures were performed in triplicate: the acidity index (% in oleic acid), peroxides (mEq O2·kg-1), and specific extinction coefficients at 232 and 270 nm, in addition to delta k (Rueda et al. 2016).
Samples of avocado oils were transesterified in methyl esters using potassium hydroxide in methanol and n-hexane, according to the AOCS Ce 2-66 method. The methyl esters were analyzed by gas chromatography (GC-2010-Shimadzu) using a flame ionization detector and an SPTM-2560 capillary column (100 mm × 0.25 mm × 0.2 µm). The standard used was a mixture of 37 methyl esters (Supelco 37 Component FAME Mix). The following operational parameters were used: split injection mode, split ratio 1:100; 1 μL of injection volume; detector temperature of 260°C; injector temperature of 260°C; oven temperature program: maintained at 60°C for 1 min, increased from 4°C·min-1 to 140°C, maintained for 5 min; and ramp up from 4 to 240°C·min-1, maintained for 30 min. The peaks were identified by comparing the retention times of the fatty acid methyl ester standards with the retention times of the observed peaks.
The composition of fatty acids was explored by hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) and principal component analysis (PCA). A m × n matrix, in which m was the number of samples and n was the number of variables (percentage of the area of the identified fatty acids), was used to perform the HCA and PCA. The data were centered on the mean, and the HCA and PCA were performed using Chemoface software version 1.64.
To determine the total chlorophyll (TCh) content, the procedure described in AOCS, Official Method Cc 13i-96, based on absorbance at 630, 670, and 710 nm, was used. The total carotenoid content (TCa) was determined as described by Carvalho and Nunes (2021) from the absorbance of 0.5 g of the sample diluted in 2 mL of n-hexane measured at 445 nm using a spectrophotometer (Spectro 500 Visible) and n- hexane as a blank.
The results were subjected to analysis of variance, and the means were compared using the Scott‒Knott’s test at 5% probability by the software Sisvar (Ferreira 2019).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In the two years of evaluation, in comparison to the other cultivars, ‘Quintal’ and ‘Fortuna’ ones produced fruits with higher masses, with an average greater than 800 g (Table 1). On the other hand, these two cultivars produced smaller amounts of fruits, and among the cultivars, ‘Breda’ had the highest number of fruits at 225 and 187 in 2021 and 2022, respectively. Nevertheless, in 2021 and 2022, between the cultivars, ‘Fortuna’ one had the highest yield (119.1 and 102.7 kg, respectively) and the estimated one (21.2 and 18.2 t·ha-1, respectively), as did ‘Margarida’ cultivar (128.4 and 108.1 kg; 22.9 and 19.3 t·ha-1, respectively).
Regarding the crown dimensions, among the cultivars, ‘Fortuna’ cultivar plants were the highest, and ‘Margarida’ cultivar plants had the greatest crown widths (Table 1).
Mean fruit mass, mean number of fruits, yield, estimated yield, height of plant, and mean diameter of plant of the different avocado cultivar plants cultivated in a high-altitude subtropical region in 2021 and 2022*.
The results of this study indicating the productive performance of the four avocado cultivars under high-altitude subtropical conditions are pioneering, as no references on the production of these cultivars have been found in the literature. According to Duarte et al. (2016), avocado has a very high fruit production, reaching a production of 138 kg at seven years after planting. Therefore, it is essential to verify the productive behavior of cultivars in terms of fruit yield and quality in different macroclimates (Silva et al. 2017).
According to the results obtained in the statistical analysis, for the physicochemical evaluations of the fruits, there was a significant difference between the cultivars for all variables analyzed (Table 2).
Longitudinal diameter and mean transverse diameter of the fruits, pulp, and peel + seed ratio; pulp, seed and peel proportions; percentage of pulp moisture; percentage of pulp dry mass; and percentage of oil in the dry pulp (lipids) of the different avocado cultivars grown in a high-altitude subtropical region*.
The fruit of ‘Quintal’ cultivar had the highest mean longitudinal diameter (193.33 mm), followed by those of the fruit of ‘Fortuna’ cultivars (175.07 mm), ‘Margarida’ (139.00 mm), and ‘Breda’ (125.00 mm). Regarding the transverse diameter, the fruit of ‘Margarida’ cultivar had the largest dimensions (132.27 mm), followed by those of the fruit of ‘Fortuna’ (117.75 mm), ‘Quintal’ (104.33), and ‘Breda’ (94.20 mm).
Based on the mean longitudinal and transverse diameter of the fruits, the cultivars ‘Breda’, ‘Fortuna’, and ‘Quintal’ showed predominant pyriform shapes. Conversely, the fruits of ‘Margarida’ cultivar showed minimal differences between their length and width, presenting predominant spheroid shape (Juma et al. 2020).
Regarding the proportions of pulp, seed, and peel (Table 2), ‘Margarida’ cultivar had the highest mean percentage of pulp (87.17%) and lower percentages of seed (8.07%) and peel (4.76%), while ‘Breda’ cultivar exhibited the lowest mean percentage of pulp (67.72%) and the highest percentages of seed and bark (23.75 and 8.54%), respectively. These proportions influenced the results of the pulp and peel + seed ratio, in which, among the cultivars, ‘Margarida’ cultivar had the highest ratio, and ‘Breda’ the lowest.
The highest mean percentage of moisture in the pulp was observed in ‘Fortuna’ cultivar (81.14%), followed by that ‘Margarida’ (80.60%), ‘Breda’ (79.25%), and ‘Quintal’ (78.85%) (Table 2). The high moisture content was inversely related to the dry mass of the pulp since ‘Quintal’ cultivar had the highest percentage (21.15%), and ‘Fortuna’ cultivar had the lowest one (18.86%). Regarding the oil content in the dry pulp (total lipids), ‘Breda’ cultivar exhibited the highest percentages in the pulp (66.27%), followed by that of ‘Quintal’ (63.74%), ‘Fortuna’ (60.96%), and ‘Margarida’ (55.59%).
Regarding the chemical analyses of the oils obtained (Table 3), the oleic acid content of all cultivars was less than 0.80%. The peroxide index results ranged from 3.10 (‘Breda’) to 5.09 mEq·kg-1 (‘Fortune’). Absorption in the ultraviolet spectrum at 232 nm was minimally different between the cultivars, at 1.37 for ‘Margarida’ cultivar, 1.40 for ‘Fortuna’ cultivar, 2.13 for ‘Quintal’ cultivar, and 2.22 for ‘Breda’. The ultraviolet absorption at 270 nm showed values of 0.11 for ‘Quintal’ and ‘Margarida’, 0.12 for ‘Fortuna’, and 0.14 for ‘Breda’. The delta K, calculated from the 232 and 270 nm extinction coefficients, showed values lower than 0.01 for all cultivars in this study (Table 3).
Acid index, peroxide index, and specific extinction in the ultraviolet spectrum of oil from the different avocado cultivars grown in a high-altitude subtropical region*.
Avocado trees have three horticultural or ecological races: Mexican (Persea americana var. drymifolia), Antillean (P. americana var. americana) and Guatemalan (Persea nubigena var. guatemalensis). Each race encompasses different cultivars of avocado. The main commercial cultivars in economic exploitation in Brazil, such as ‘Breda’, ‘Fortuna’, ‘Margarida’ and ‘Quintal’, are hybrids resulting from natural crosses between the Antillean and Guatemalan races (Nogueira-de-Almeida et al. 2018).
Silva et al. (2014), when evaluating seven avocado cultivars, found that in comparison to other cultivars, ‘Quintal’ and ‘Fortuna’ ones had higher masses. Jorge et al. (2015) also found ‘Margarida’ cultivar fruit mass values similar to the results of the present study. Thus, the results obtained in this study are consistent with those in the literature.
Regarding fruit dimensions, the results of the present study are in accordance with those in the literature (Oliveira et al. 2013, Silva et al. 2014). Based on the evaluation of the ratio of pulp, seed, and peel proportions (Table 2), ‘Margarida’ cultivar had the highest mean percentage of pulp (87.17%) and the lowest values of seed (8.07%), similar to what was indicated in Oliveira et al. (2013) when evaluating ‘Margarida’, ‘Fortuna’, and ‘Quintal’.
The pulp percentage is the most relevant, because it is the edible part of the fruit, from which oil is extracted. The pulp results of this study corroborate those of Tango et al. (2004), who stated that even for avocado cultivars with distinct characteristics, such as fruit volume and mass, there were fewer differences in the pulp values. In general, approximately 70% of the total weight of the fruit corresponds to the pulp (Mooz et al. 2012). It is important to note that in the cultivars analyzed, all showed higher indices than those presented in the literature.
The fatty acid composition of avocado oils was determined by HCA and PCA. Considering the Euclidean distance obtained through the entire fatty acid profile (Fig. 1a), ‘Breda’ and ‘Fortuna’ avocados had similar oil compositions, with the oil of ‘Quintal’ avocado was the next most similar in composition. ‘Margarida’ cultivar avocado oil fatty acid composition was significantly different from that of the other oils. The PCA showed that ‘Margarida’ avocado oil was characterized as having the highest proportion of linoleic acid (C18:2) and mainly palmitic acid (C16: 0) in relation to those of other oils (Fig. 1b). ‘Breda’, ‘Fortuna’, and ‘Quintal’ avocado oils had the highest proportions of oleic acid, and ‘Breda’ avocado oil was also characterized by the highest proportion of palmitoleic acid (C16:1) (Table 4).
Composition of fatty acids explored by (a) hierarchical cluster analysis and (b) principal component (PC) analysis, for the composition of the avocado oils from the different avocado cultivars grown in a high-altitude subtropical region.
Percentage fatty acid contents in the different avocado cultivars grown in a high-altitude subtropical region.
Stearic (C18:0) and linolenic (C18:3) acids occurred in low amounts in the two main components (PC1 and PC2) and had little influence on the discrimination of the avocado oils.
Regarding the content of natural pigments, the oils from ‘Quintal’, ‘Breda’, and ‘Fortuna’ avocados showed statistically equal concentrations of chlorophylls and carotenoids, while ‘Margarida’ avocado oil showed low levels of these two pigments (Table 5).
Total chlorophyll and total carotenoid contents in the different avocado cultivar oils grown in a high-altitude subtropical region*.
Overall, given the fatty acid profiles and the natural pigment contents, the chemical compositions of ‘Quintal’, ‘Breda’, and ‘Fortuna’ avocado oils were the most similar and differed from ‘Margarida’ avocado oil one.
From the obtained results, there was an inversely proportional relationship between the moisture contents and the dry matter and lipid contents in the pulp among the avocado cultivars. Tango et al. (2004) and Silva et al. (2014) also found a high negative correlation between moisture and lipid content in the pulp of avocado cultivars. According to Tango et al. (2004), the high moisture content in fresh pulp is the main obstacle to obtaining avocado oil, affecting the extraction yield and production cost. It is important to note that the moisture content in the pulp of the four cultivars analyzed was close to the 79.37% found in the pulp of ‘Hass’ cultivar, traditionally the most used cultivar for producing avocado oil (Mooz et al. 2012). Thus, the four cultivars studied can be alternative sources of avocado oil.
The lipid content in avocado pulp is higher than in other fruit pulps. It has been reported that such lipids have beneficial effects on cardiometabolic risk factors, having a heart-healthy fatty acid profile (Wang et al. 2015). Studies have indicated that avocado oil has characteristics that resemble the quality of olive oil (Tango et al. 2004, Oliveira et al. 2013). The acidity and absorption values in the ultraviolet spectrum at 232 and 270 nm for the avocado cultivar oils in this study were consistent with those found by Silva et al. (2012), who evaluated the quality of olive oil from several olive cultivars in a high-altitude subtropical region. The peroxide index results ranged from 3.10 (‘Breda’ cultivar) to 5.09 mEq•kg-1 (‘Fortuna’ cultivar) and are consistent with the values found by Jorge et al. (2015).
Based on the fatty acid composition evaluation of the avocado oils in the present study, according to the evaluation of the Euclidean distance obtained through the fatty acid profile (Fig. 1a), ‘Breda’ and ‘Fortuna’ avocado oils had the most similar fatty acid compositions, and ‘Margarida’ avocado oil had a significantly different fatty composition from those of the other oils. ‘Margarida’ avocado oil showed higher proportions of linoleic acid (C18:2) and mainly of palmitic acid (C16:0) compared to those of the other oils (Fig. 1b). ‘Breda’, ‘Fortuna’, and ‘Quintal’ avocado oils had the highest proportions of oleic acid, and ‘Breda’ avocado oil was also characterized as having the highest proportion of palmitoleic acid (C16:1) (Table 4).
Compared with other vegetable oils, avocado oils are rich in oleic acid and have relatively low levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as α-linolenic acid (Melo et al. 2019), which corroborates the results found in the present study.
Oleic acid is the main fatty acid in avocado, accounting for an average of 45% of its total fatty acids (Carvalho et al. 2015). However, the results obtained in the present study exceeded this value, which may have been related to the cultivar and high-altitude subtropical climate. Other present fatty acids included palmitic and palmitoleic acids, with smaller amounts of myristic, stearic, linolenic, and arachidonic acids. However, the compositions of these fatty acids depend largely on the cultivar and geographic location (Duarte et al. 2016).
The fatty acid compositions of the analyzed avocado cultivars showed results superior to or close to those of ‘Hass’ cultivar, which is the avocado most used to produce oil. The oil of ‘Margarida’ cultivar contained 25.28% palmitic acid, higher than the 23.20% found in ‘Hass’. Notably, the percentage of oleic acid in the oils of the four cultivars studied that originated from a high-altitude subtropical region (49.45%) was higher than that of ‘Hass’ (Ferrari 2015).
Regarding the content of natural pigments in the oils of the four avocado cultivars, ‘Quintal’, ‘Breda’, and ‘Fortuna’ cultivars showed statistically equal concentrations of chlorophylls and carotenoids, while ‘Margarida’ avocado oil had low levels of two pigments (Table 5). The levels of TCh found in the oils of ‘Quintal’, ‘Breda’, and ‘Fortuna’ were higher than those found by Mooz et al. (2012), who indicated 8.09% in the oil of ‘Hass’. On the other hand, the content found in ‘Margarida’ cultivar was almost half that. For the TCa, again, the levels in ‘Quintal’, ‘Breda’, and ‘Fortuna’ cultivars were higher than those found by Mooz et al. (2012), who indicated 1.72%.
Studies have shown that the presence of phytochemicals in avocado pulp is associated with health benefits (Bhuyan et al. 2019). It was reported that the absorptions of provitamin A, including β-carotene, α-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, lutein, and zeaxanthin, were reinforced when consumed with avocado. This may be attributed to the high content of monounsaturated fatty acids in avocado. In parsley, the absorption of lycopene and β-carotene increased 4.4 and 2.6 times, respectively, when avocado was added. In salad (150 g), the addition of avocado (24 g) increased the absorption of α- and β-carotene and lutein 7.2, 15.3, and 5.1 times, respectively (Unlu et al. 2005). As avocado is a rich source of lipids, monosaturated fatty acids, and TCa, it is an alternative source of these components, especially when added in the form of oil to salads.
CONCLUSION
‘Fortuna’ and ‘Margarida’ cultivars were the most productive ones. ‘Breda’, ‘Fortuna’, and ‘Quintal’ avocado oils had the highest proportions of oleic acid, and the ‘Margarida’ oil had a higher proportion of palmitic linoleic acid. The percentages of oleic acid in the oils of the four cultivars studied, originating from a high-altitude subtropical region, were high.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Not applicable.
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How to cite: Pio, R., Pereira, C. S., Zambon, C. R., Silva, L. F. O., Marinho, J. F. U., Costa, A. C., Peche, P. M. and Nunes, C. A. (2025). Fruit production and oil quality of avocado cultivars in a high-altitude subtropical region. Bragantia, 84, e20240286. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-4499.20240286
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FUNDING
Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível SuperiorFinance Code 001Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e TecnológicoGrant No.: 403040/2023-0Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Minas GeraisGrant Nos.: APQ-02264-18 and APQ-03781-22
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
All dataset were generated and analyzed in the current study.
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Edited by
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Section Editor:
Cláudia Sales Marinho https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6636-6468
